"AND 

*  * 


WOOD  AND  FOREST 


By  WILLIAM  NO  YES 

Assistant  Professor  of  Industrial  Arts, 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 
NEW  YORK  CITY 


THE  MANUAL  ARTS  PRESS 
PEORIA,  ILLINOIS 


4  "»> 


COPYRIGHT 

WILLIAM  NOYES 

1912 

SECOND  EDITION,  DECEMBER.  1912. 


FOREWORD 

This  book  has  been  prepared  as  a  companion  volume  to  the  au- 
thor's Handivork  in  Wood*  It  is  an  attempt  to  collect  and  arrange 
in  available  form  useful  information,  now  widely  scattered,  about 
our  common  woods,  their  sources,  growth,  properties  and  uses. 

As  in  the  other  volume,  the  credit  for  the  successful  completion 
of  the  book  is  to  be  given  to  my  wife,  Anna  Gausmann  Noyes,  who 
has  made  the  drawings  and  maps,  corrected  the  text,  read  the  proof, 
and  carried  the  work  thru  to  its  final  completion. 

Acknowledgments  are  hereby  thankfully  made  for  corrections  and 
suggestions  in  the  text  to  the  following  persons : 

Mr.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Entomology,  for  revision  of  the  text  relating  to 
Insect  Enemies  of  the  Forest,  in  Chapter  VI. 

Mr.  George  G.  Hedgcock,  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Agri- 
culture, Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  for  revision  of  the  text  relating 
to  the  fungal  enemies  of  the  forest,  in  Chapter  VI. 

Mr.  S,  T.  Dana  and  Mr.  Burnett  Barrows,  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  Forest  Service,  for  revision  of  Chapters 
IV,  V,  VI,  VII,  and  VIII. 

Professor  Charles  R.  Richards,  formerly  Head  of  the  Manual 
Training  Department  of  Teachers  College,  my  predecessor  as  lec- 
turer of  the  course  out  of  which  this  book  has  grown. 

Professor  M.  A.  Bigelow,  Head  of  the  Department  of  Botany  of 
Teachers  College,  for  revision  of  Chapter  I,  on  the  Structure  of  Wood. 

Mr.  Romeyn  B.  Hough,  of  Lowville,  N".  Y.,  author  of  American 
Woods  and  Handbook  of  the  Trees  of  the  Northern  States  and  Can- 
ada, for  suggestions  in  preparing  the  maps  in  Chapter  III. 

The  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C.,  for  photographs  and 
maps  credited  to  it,  and  for  permission  to  reprint  the  key  to  the 
identification  of  woods  which  appears  in  Forest  Service  Bulletin  No. 
10,  Timber,  by  Filibert  Roth. 

The  Division  of  Publications,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 
for  permission  to  copy  illustrations  in  bulletins. 

1William  Noyes,  Handwork  in  Wood,  Peoria,  111.  The  Manual  Arts  Press, 
231  pp.,  $2. 

1 


The  Macmillan  Company,  New  York,  for  permission  to  reproduce 
Fig.  86,  Portion  of  the  Mycelium  of  Dry  Eot,  from  Timber  and 
Some  of  its  Diseases,  by  H.  M.  Ward. 

Mrs.  Katharine  Golden  Bitting,  of  Lafayette,  Indiana,  for  the 
photograph  of  the  cross-section  of  a  bud,  Figure  5. 

Finally  and  not  least  I  hereby  acknowledge  my  obligations  to  the 
various  writers  and  publishers  whose  books  and  articles  I  have  freely 
used.  As  far  as  possible,  appropriate  credit  is  given  in  the  paged 
references  at  the  end  of  each  chapter. 


CONTEXTS. 


CHAPTER 


General  Bibliography  4 

I     The  Structure  of  Wood 9 

II     Properties  of  Wood 41 

III  The  Principal  Species  of  American  Woods 57 

IV  The  Distribution  and  Composition  of  the  North  American 

Forests   197 

V    The  Forest  Organism 211 

VI     Natural  Enemies  of  the  Forest 229 

VII     The  Exhaustion  of  the  Forest 251 

VIII     The  Use  of  the  Forest 271 

Appendix   289 

Index    .  . .304 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Apgar,  A.  G.,  Trees  of  the  Northern  United  States.  N.  Y.:  American  Book 
Co.,  224  pp.  A  small  book  dealing  with  the  botany  of  trees,  giving  de- 
scriptions of  their  essential  organs,  and  particularly  valuable  for  the 
leaf  key  to  the  trees.  It  should  be  supplemented  by  Keeler  or  Hough's 
Handbook. 

Baterden,  J.  R.,  Timber.  N.  Y.:  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  1908,  351  pp.  A 
description  of  the  timbers  of  various  countries,  discussion  of  timber 
defects,  timber  tests,  etc. 

Bitting,  K.  G.,  The  Structure  of  Wood.  Wood  Craft,  5:  76,  106,  144,  172, 
June-Sept.,  '06.  A  very  scholarly  and  valuable  series  of  articles  on 
wood  structure  and  growth.  Excellent  microphotographs. 

Britton,  Nathaniel  Lord,  North  American  Trees.  N.  Y. :  Henry  Holt  &  Co., 
1908,  894  pp.  A  description  of  all  the  kinds  of  trees  growing  inde- 
pendently of  cultivation  in  North  America,  north  of  Mexico,  and  the 
West  Indies.  The  standard  Botany  of  trees. 

Boulger,  G.  S.,  Wood.  London:  Edward  Arnold,  369  pp.  A  thoro  discus- 
sion of  wood  structure,  with  chapters  on  the  recognition  and  classifica- 
tion of  woods,  defects,  preservation,  uses,  tests,  supplies,  and  sources 
of  wood.  Good  illustrations. 

Bruce,  E.  S.,  Frost  Checks  and  Wind  Shakes.  Forestry  and  Irrigation,  8: 
159,  April,  '02.  An  original  study  of  the  splitting  of  trees  by  sudden 
frost  and  thaw. 

Bruncken,  Ernest,  North  American  Forests  and  Forestry.  N.  Y. :  G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons.  265  pp.  A  comprehensive  survey  of  American  Forestry 
conditions  including  the  forest  industries,  fires,  taxation,  and  manage- 
ment. No  illustrations. 

Busbridge,  Harold,  The  Shrinkage  and  Warping  of  Timber.  Sci.  Amer.  Suppl., 
No.  1500,  Oct.  1,  1904.  Good  photographic  illustrations. 

Comstock,  J.  H.  and  A.  B.,  A  Manual  for  the  Study  of  Insects.  Ithaca, 
N.  Y. :  Comstock  Publishing  Co.,  701  pp.  Valuable  for  reference  in 
classifying  insects  injurious  to  wood. 

Curtis,  Carleton  C.,  Nature  and  Development  of  Plants.  N.  Y. :  Henry  Holt 
&  Co.,  1907,  471  pp.  Chapter  III  is  a  very  clear  and  excellent  discus- 
sion of  the  structure  of  the  stem  of  plants  (including  wood). 

Encyclopedia  Brittannica,  Eleventh  Edition,  Cambridge:  At  the  University 
Press.  Article:  Forests  and  Forestry,  Vol.  10,  p.  645.  Article:  Plants, 
Anatomy  of,  Vol.  21,  p.  741  Article:  Timber  Vol.  26,  p  978. 

Felt,  E.  P.,  The  Gypsy  and  Brown  Tail  Moths.  N.  Y.  State  Museum:  Bul- 
letin 103,  Entomology,  25.  Valuable  for  colored  illustrations  as  well 
as  for  detailed  descriptions. 

Fernow,  B.  E.,  Economics  of  Forestry.  N.  Y.:  T.  Y.  Crowell  &  Co.  1902, 
quarto  520  pp.  A  treatment  of  forests  and  forestry  from  the  standpoint 

4 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY.  0 

of  economics,  including  a  comprehensive  exposition  of  the  forester's  art, 
with  chapters  on  forest  conditions,  silviculture,  forest  policies,  and 
methods  of  business  conduct,  with  a  bibliography. 

Fernow,  B.  E.,  Report  upon  the  Forestry  Investigation  of  the  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  1887-1898.  Fifty-fifth  Congress,  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives, Document  No.  181.  Quarto,  401  pp.  A  review  of  forests 
and  forestry  in  the  U.  S.,  of  forest  policies  of  European  nations,  par- 
ticularly of  Germany,  of  the  principles  of  silviculture,  of  a  discussion 
of  forest  influences,  and  a  section  on  timber  physics. 

Harwood,  W.  S.,  The  New  Earth.  N.  Y.:  The  Macmillan  Co.,  1906.  378 
pp.  A  recital  of  the  triumphs  of  modern  agriculture.  Chap.  X  on 
modern  forestry,  describes  what  has  been  done  in  different  states  in 
conservative  lumbering. 

Hough,  Romeyn  B..  American  Woods.  Lowville,  N.  Y. :  The  author.  An 
invaluable  collection  in  eleven  volumes  (boxes)  of  sections  of  275  spe- 
cies of  American  woods.  There  are  three  sections  of  each  species,  cross, 
radial,  and  tangential,  mounted  in  cardboard  panels.  Accompanied  by 
a  list  of  descriptions  and  analytical  keys. 

Hough,  Romeyn  B.,  Handbook  of  the  Trees  of  the  Northern  States  and  Can- 
ada. Lowville,  N.  Y. :  The  author.  470  pp.  A  unique,  elegant,  and 
sumptuously  illustrated  book,  with  photographs  of  tree,  trunk,  leaf, 
fruit,  bud,  and  sometimes  wood,  a  map  of  the  habitat  of  each  species, 
and  a  full  and  careful  description  of  tree  and  wood.  Intended  for  bot- 
anists, foresters  and  lumbermen. 

Johnson,  J.  B.,  The  Materials  of  Construction.  N.  Y. :  John  Wiley  &  Sons. 
1898.  775  pp.  Chapter  XIII  is  identical  with  Forestry  Bulletin  X, 
Roth's  Timber. 

Keeler,  Harriet,  Our  Native  Trees.  N.  Y. :  Scribner's.  1900.  533  pp.  A 
very  attractive  and  popular  book  showing  great  familiarity  with  the 
common  trees  and  love  of  them.  Numerous  photographs  and  drawings. 

Lounsberry,  Alice,  A  Guide  to  the  Trees.  N.  Y. :  Frederick  A.  Stokes  Co. 
313  pp.  A  popular  description  of  some  200  common  trees,  with  plenti- 
ful illustrations. 

Pinchot,  Gifford,  A  Primer  of  Forestry.  Parts  I  and  II,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agric.  For.  Serv.  Bull.  No.  24.  88  pp.  and  88  pp.  A  concise,  clear,  and 
fully  illustrated  little  manual  of  forestry  conditions,  forest  enemies, 
forestry  principles  and  practice  abroad  and  in  the  U.  S. 

Pinchot,  Gifford.  The  Adirondack  Spruce.  N.  Y.:  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 
A  technical  account  of  the  author's  investigations  on  a  forest  estate  in 
Northern  New  York. 

Price,  0.  W.,  Saving  the  Southern  Forests.  World's  Work,  5:  3207,  March, 
'03.  A  plea  for  conservative  lumbering;  excellent  illustrations. 

Record,  Samuel  J.,  Characterisation  of  the  Grain  and  Texture  of  Wood. 
Woodcraft,  15:  3,  June,  1911. 

Roth,  Filibert,  A  First  Book  of  Forestry.  Boston:  Ginn  &  Co.  291  pp.  A 
book  for  young  people,  giving  in  an  interesting  form  many  valuable 


6  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

facts   about   American   forests   and   their   care    and  use.     It  includes   a 
leaf  key  to  the  trees. 

Sargent,  Charles  Sprague,  Forest  Trees  of  North  America.  U.  S.  10th 
Census,  Vol.  9.  Quarto,  612  pp.  Part  1  deals  with  the  distribution 
of  the  forests,  and  gives  a  catalog  and  description  of  the  forest  trees 
of  North  America,  exclusive  of  Mexico.  Part  II.  Tables  of  properties 
of  the  woods  of  the  U.  S.  Part  III.  The  economic  aspects  of  the  for- 
ests of  the  U.  S.  considered  geographically,  and  maps  showing  distri- 
butions and  densities.  Exceedingly  valuable. 

Sargent,  Charles  Sprague,  Jesup  Collection,  The  Woods  of  the  U.  S.  N.  Y. : 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  203  pp.  A  detailed  description  of  the  Jesup  Col- 
lection of  North  American  Woods  in  the  American  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  N.  Y.  City,  with  valuable  tables  as  to  strength,  elasticity, 
hardness,  weight,  etc.  Condensed  from  Vol.  IX  of  10th  U.  S.  Census. 

Sargent,  Charles  Sprague,  Manual  of  the  Trees  of  North  America.  Boston: 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.  826  pp.  A  compact  mine  of  information,  with 
some  errors,  about  the  known  trees  of  North  America  and  their  woods, 
summarized  from  Sargent's  larger  work,  "The  Silva  of  North  America." 
(See  below.) 

Sargent,  Charles  Sprague,  The  Silva  of  North  America.  Boston:  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Co.  A  monumental  and  sumptuous  work  of  14  quarto  volumes, 
describing  in  great  detail  all  the  known  trees  of  North  America  and 
their  woods,  with  beautiful  line  drawings  of  leaves  and  fruits. 

Shaler,  Nathaniel  S.,  The  United  States  of  America.  Vol.  1,  pp.  485-517. 
N.  Y. :  D.  Appleton  &  Co.  Chapter  IX  is  a  popular  description  of 
American  forests  and  the  Lumber  Industry. 

Snow,  Chas.  Henry,  The  Principal  Species  of  Wood.  N.  Y.:  John  Wiley  & 
Sons.  203  pp.  Descriptions  and  data  regarding  the  economically  im- 
portant varieties  of  wood,  with  excellent  photographs  of  trees  and  woods. 

Strasburger,  Noll,  Schenck,  and  Schimper.  A  Text  Book  of  Botany.  N.  Y.: 
Macmillan  &  Co.  746  pp.  Valuable  for  minute  information  about  the 
morphology  of  wood. 

U.  S.  Tenth  Census,  Vol.  IX.     See  Sargent. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Forest  Service  Bulletins.  The  character 
of  these  government  pamphlets  is  well  indicated  by  their  titles.  No. 
10  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  summary  of  the  facts  about  the  structure 
and  properties  of  wood,  contains  the  best  available  key  to  identification 
of  common  American  woods  (not  trees)  and  a  concise  description  of 
each.  It  is  incorporated,  as  Chap.  XIII,  in  Johnson's,  t(The  Materials 
for  Construction."  N.  Y.:  John  Wiley  &  Sons.  Nos.  13  and  22  are 
large  monographs  containing  much  valuable  information. 
No.  10.  Filibert  Roth,  Timber. 

No.  13.  Charles  Mohr,  The  Timber  Pines  of  the  Southern  United  States. 
No.  15.  Frederick  V.  Coville,  Forest  Growth  and  Sheep   Grazing  in  the 

Cascade  Mountains  of  Oregon. 
No.  16.  Filibert  Roth,  Forestry  Conditions  in  Wisconsin. 


GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY.  7 

No.  17.  George   B.    Sudworth,    Check   List   of    the   Forest   Trees    of   the 

United  States,  1898. 

No.  18.  Charles  A.  Keffer,  Experimental  Tree  Planting  on  the  Plains. 
No.  22.  V.  M.  Spalding  and  F.  H.  Chittenden,  The  White  Pine. 
No.  24.  Gifford  Pinchot,  A  Pricier  of  Forestry. 
No.  26.  Henry  S.  Graves,  Practical  Forestry  in  the  Adirondacks. 
No.  41.  Herman  von  Schrenck,   Seasoning  of   Timber. 
No.  45.  Harold  B.  Kempton,   The  Planting  of  White  Pine  in  New  Eng- 
land. 

No.  52.  Royal   S.  Kellogg,  Forest  Planting  in  Western  Kansas. 
No.  61.  Terms  Used  in  Forestry  and  Logging. 
No.  65.  George  L.  Clothier,  Advice  for  Forest  Planters  in  Oklahoma  and 

Adjacent  Regions. 
No.  74.  R.   S.   Kellogg  and  H.  M.  Hale,  Forest  Products  of  the  U.  8., 

1905. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Forest  Service  Circulars. 
No.     3.  George  William  Hill,  Publications  for  Sale. 
No.  25.  Gifford  Pinchot,  The  Lumberman  and  the  Forester. 
No.  26.  H.  M.  Suter,  Forest  Fires  in  the  Adirondacks  in  1903. 
No.  36.  The  Forest  Service:     What  it  is,  and  how  it  deals  with  Forest 

Problems.     Also    Classified   List   of   Publications   and   Guide   to 

Their  Contents. 

No.  37.  Forest  Planting  in  the  Sand  Hill  Region  of  Nebraska. 
No.  40    H.  B.  Holroyd,  The  Utilization  of  Tupelo. 
No.  41.  S.    N.    Spring,    Forest    Planting    on    Coal    Lands    in    Western 

Pennsylvania. 

No.  45.  Frank  G.  Miller,  Forest  Planting  in  Eastern  Nebraska. 
No.  81.  R.  S.  Kellogg,  Forest  Planting  in  Illinois. 
No.  97    R.  S.  Kellogg,  Timber  Supply  of  the  United  States. 
No.  153,  A.  H.  Pierson,  Exports  and  Imports  of  Forest  Products,  1907. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  Year  Books  for: 
1896.  Filibert  Roth,  The  Uses  of  Wood. 

1898,  p.  181.  Gifford  Pinchot,  Notes  on  some  Forest  Problems. 

1899,  p.  415.  Henry    S.    Graves,    The    Practice    of    Forestry    by    Private 
Owners. 

1900,  p    199.  Hermann  von  Schrenck,  Fungous  Diseases  of  Forest  Trees. 
1902,  p.  145.  William  L.  Hall,  Forest  Extension  in  the  Middle  West. 
1902,  p.  265.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Some  of  the  Principal  Insect  Enemies  of 

Coniferous  Forests  in  the  United  States. 

1902,  p.  309.  Overton,   W.   Price,   Influence  of  Forestry  on  the  Lumber 
Supply. 

1903,  p.  279.  James    W.    Tourney,    The   Relation    of    Forests    to    Stream 
Flow. 

1903,  p.  313.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Insect  Injuries  to  Hardwood  Forest  Trees. 

1904,  p,  133.  E.  A.  Sterling,  The  Attitude  of  Lumbermen  toward  Forest 
Fires. 


8  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

1904,  p.  381.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Insect  Injuries  to  Forest  Products. 

1905,  p.  455.  Henry  Grinell,  Prolonging  the  Life  of  Telephone  Poles. 
1905,  p.  483.  J.  Grivin  Peters,  Waste  in  Logging  Southern  Yellow  Pine. 
1905,  p.  636.  Quincy  R.  Craft,  Progress  of  Forestry  in  1905. 

1907,  p    277.  Raphael    Zon    and    E.    H.    Clapp,    Cutting    Timber   in    the 

National  Forests. 

U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of  Entomology  Bulletins: 
No.  11.  n.   s.   L.  O.   Howard,   The   Gypsy  Moth  in  America. 
No.  28.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Spruce  in  the  Northeast. 
No.  32.  n.  s.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Insect  Enemies  of  the  Pine  in   the  Black 

Hills  Forest  Reserve. 

No.  48.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Catalog  of  Exhibits  of  Insect  Enemies  of  Forest 
and  Forest  Products  at  the  Louisiana  Purchase  Exposition,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  1904. 

No.  56.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  The  Black  Hills  Beetle 
No.  58.  Part  1,  A.  D.  Hopkins,  The  Locust  Borer. 

No.  58.  Part  II,  J.  L.  Webb,  The  Western  Pine  Destroying  Bark  Beetle. 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  Bulletins: 

No.  32.  Herman  von  Schrenck,  A  Disease  of  the  White  Ash  Caused  by 

Polyporus  Fraxinophilus,   1903. 
No.  36.  Hermann   von    Schrenck,    The   "Bluing"   and   "Red  Rot"    of   the 

Western  Yellow  Pine,  1903. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Corporations  on  the  Lumber  Industry,  Part  I, 
Standing  Timber,  February,  1911.  The  latest  and  most  reliable  inves- 
tigation into  the  amount  and  ownership  of  the  forests  of  the  United 
States. 

Ward,  H.  Marshall,  Timber  and  some  of  its  Diseases.  London:  Macmillan  & 
Co.,  295  pp.  An  English  book  that  needs  supplementing  by  informa- 
tion on  American  wood  diseases,  such  as  is  included  in  the  list  of  gov- 
ernment publications  given  herewith.  The  book  includes  a  description 
of  the  character,  structure,  properties,  varieties,  and  classification  of 
timbers 


CHAPTER  I. 
THE  STRUCTURE  OF  WOOD. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the  suitability  of  wood  for  a  par- 
ticular purpose  depends  most  of  all  upon  its  internal  structure,  it 
is  plain  that  the  woodworker  should  know  the  essential  characteris- 
tics of  that  structure.  While  his  main  interest  in  wood  is  as  lum- 
ber, dead  material  to  be  used  in  woodworking,  he  can  properly  un- 
derstand its  structure  only  by  knowing  something  of  it  as  a  live, 
growing  organism.  To  facilitate  this,  a  knowledge  of  its  position 
in  the  plant  world  is  helpful. 

All  the  useful  woods  are  to  be  found  in  the  highest  sub-kingdom 
of  the  plant  world,  the  flowering  plants  or  Phanerogamia  of  the 
botanist.  These  flowering  plants  are  to  be  classified  as  follows: 

r  I.  Gymnosperms.      (Naked  seeds.) 

1.  Cycadaceae.      (Palms,   ferns,  etc.) 

2.  Gnetaceae.      (Joint  firs.) 

3.  Conifers.      Pines,   firs,  etc. 
Phanerogamia,             n    Angiosperms.      (rruits.) 

(Flowering  plants  ^  Monocotyledons.     (One  seed-leaf.) 

Palms,  bamboos,  grasses,  etc.) 
2.  Dicotyledons.     (Two  seed-leaves.) 

a.  Herbs. 

b.  Broad-leaved  trees. 

Under  the  division  of  naked-seeded  plants  (gymnosperms),  prac- 
tically the  only  valuable  timber-bearing  plants  are  the  needle-leaved 
trees  or  the  conifers,  including  such  trees  as  the  pines,  cedars,  spruces, 
firs,  etc.  Their  wood  grows  rapidly  in  concentric  annual  rings,  like 
that  of  the  broad-leaved  trees ;  is  easily  worked,  and  is  more  widely 
used  than  the  wood  of  any  other  class  of  trees. 

Of  fruit-bearing  trees  (angiosperms),  there  are  two  classes,  those 
that  have  one  seed-leaf  as  they  germinate,  and  those  that  have  two 
seed-leaves. 

The  one  seed-leaf  plants  (monocotyledons)  include  the  grasses, 
lilies,  bananas,  palms,  etc.  Of  these  there  are  only  a  few  that  reach 


10  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

the  dimensions  of  trees.  They  are  strikingly  distinguished  by  the 
structure  of  their  stems.  They  have  no  cambium  layer  and  no  dis- 
tinct bark  and  pith;  they  have  unbranched  stems,  which  as  a  rule 
do  not  increase  in  diameter  after  the  first  stages  of  growth,  but  grow 
only  terminally.  Instead  of  having  concentric  annual  rings  and 
thus  growing  larger  year  by  year,  the  woody  tissue  grows  here  and 
there  thru  the  stem,  but  mostly  crowded  together  toward  the  outer 
surfaces.  Even  where  there  is  radial  growth,  as  in  yucca,  the  struc- 
ture is  not  in  annual  rings,  but  irregular.  These  one  seed-leaf  tree? 
(monocotyledons)  are  not  of  much  economic  value  as  lumber,  being 
used  chiefly  "in  the  round,"  and  to  some  extent  for  veneers  and 
inlays;  e.  g.f  cocoanut-palm  and  porcupine  wood  are  so  used. 

The  most  useful  of  the  monocotyledons,  or  endogens,  ("inside 
growers,"  as  they  are  sometimes  called,)  are  the  bamboos,  which  are 
giant  members  of  the  group  of  grasses,  Fig.  1.  They  grow  in  dense 
forests,  some  varieties  often  70  feet  high  and  6  inches  in  diameter, 
shooting  up  their  entire  height  in  a  single  season.  Bamboo  is  very 
highly  valued  in  the  Orient,  where  it  is  used  for  masts,  for  house 
rafters,  and  other  building  purposes,  for  gutters  and  water-pipes 
and  in  countless  other  ways.  It  is  twice  as  strong  as  any  of  our 
woods. 

Under  the  fruit-bearing  trees  (angiosperms),  timber  trees  arc 
chiefly  found  among  those  that  have  two  seed-leaves  (the  dicotyle- 
dons) and  include  the  great  mass  of  broad-leaved  or  deciduous  trees, 
such  as  chestnut,  oak,  ,ash  and  maple.  It  is  to  these  and  to  the  coni- 
fers that  our  principal  attention  will  be  given,  since  they  constitute 
the  bulk  of  the  wood  in  common  use. 

The  timber-bearing  trees,  then,  are  the : 

(1)  Conifers,  the  needle-leaved,  naked-seeded  trees,  such  as  pine, 
cedar,  etc.    Fig.  45,  p.  199. 

(2)  Endogens,  which  have  one  seed-leaf,  such  as  bamboos,  Fig.  1^ 

(3)  Broad-leaved   trees,    having   two   seed-leaves,    such    as    oak, 
beech,  and  elm.    Fig.  48,  p.  202. 

The  common  classifications  of  trees  are  quite  inaccurate.  Many 
of  the  so-called  deciduous  (Latin,  deciduus,  falling  off)  trees  are 
evergreen,  such  as  holly,  and,  in  the  south,  live  oak,  magnolia  and 
cherry.  So,  too,  some  of  the  alleged  "evergreens,"  like  bald  cypress 
and  tamarack,  shed  their  leaves  annually. 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


11 


Fig.  1.    A  Bamboo  Grove,  Kioto,  Japan. 


12 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Not  all  of  the  "conifers"  bear  cones.     For  example,  the  juniper 
bears  a  berry.     The  ginko,  Fig.  2,  tho  classed  among  the  "conifers," 
the  "evergreens,"   and  the  "needle-leaf"  trees,  bears  no  cones,  has 
broad  leaves  and  is  deciduous.     It  has  an  especial  interest  as  being 
the   sole  survivor   of  many   species  which  grew 
abundantly  in  the  carboniferous  age. 

Also,  the  terms  used  by  lumbermen,  "hard 
woods"  for  broad-leaved  trees  and  "soft  woods" 
for  conifers,  are  still  less  exact,  for  the  wood 
of  some  broad-leaved  trees,  as  bass  and  poplar, 
is  much  softer  than  that  of  some  conifers,  as 
Georgia  pine  and  lignum  vitae. 

Another  classification  commonly  made  is 
that  of  "endogens"  (inside  growers)  including 
bamboos,  palms,  etc.,  and  exogens  (outside 
growers)  which  would  include  both  conifers  and 
broad-leaved  trees. 

One  reason  why  so  many  classifications  have  come  into  use  is 
that  none  of  them  is  quite  accurate.  A  better  one  will  be  explained 
later.  See  p.  23. 

As  in  the  study  of  all  woods  three  sections  are  made,  it  is  well 
at  the  outset  to  understand  clearly  what  these  are. 

The  sections  of  a  tree  made  for  its  study  are  (Fig.  3)  : 

(1)   Transverse,  a  plane  at  right  angles  to  the  organic  axis. 

(2}   Radial,  a  longitudinal  plane,  including  the  organic  axis. 


Fig.  2.    Ginko  Leaf. 


A 


A.. 


Fig.  3. 


I?. 


A,  B,  C,  D,  Transverse  Section. 

B,  D,  E,  F,  Radial  Section. 

G,  H,  I,  J,  Tangential  Section. 


A,  B,  C,  Transverse  Section. 

A,  B,  D,  E,  Radial  Section. 

B,  C,  E,  F,  Tangential  Section. 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


13 


PITH 


(3)  Tangential,  a  longitudinal  plane  not  including  the  organic  axis. 

If  a  transverse  section  of  the  trunk  of  a  conifer  or  of  a  broad- 
leaved  tree  is  made,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  it  consists  of  several  distinct 
parts.  See  Fig.  4.  These,  beginning  at  the  outside,  are : 

(1)  Rind  or  bark 

(a)  Cortex 

(b)  Bast 

(2)  Cambium 

(3)  Wood 

(a)  Sap-wood 

(b)  Heart- wood 

<4)  pith- 

(1)  The  rind  or  lark  is 
made  up  of  two  layers,  the 
outer  of  which,  the  "cortex," 
is  corky  and  usually  scales  or 
pulls  off  easily;  while  the  in- 
ner one  is  a  fibrous  coat  called 
"bast"  or  "phloem."  To- 
gether they  form  a  cone,  wid- 
est, thickest,  and  roughest  at 
the  base  and  becoming  nar- 
rower toward  the  top  of  the 
tree.  The  cortex  or  outer 
bark  serves  to  protect  the  stem 
of  the  tree  from  extremes  of 

heat  and  cold,  from  atmospheric  changes,  and  from  the  browsing  of 
animals.  It  is  made  up  of  a  tough  water-proof  layer  of  cork  which 
has  taken  the  place  of  the  tender  skin  or  "epidermis"  of  the  twig. 
Because  it  is  water-proof  the  outside  tissue  is  cut  off  from  the  water 
supply  of  the  tree,  and  so  dries  up  and  peels  off,  a  mass  of  dead 
matter.  The  cork  and  the  dead  stuff  together  are  called  the  bark. 
As  we  shall  see  later,  the  cork  grows  from  the  inside,  being  formed 
in  the  inner  layers  of  the  cortex,  the  outer  layers  of  dry  bark  being 
thus  successively  cut  off. 

The  characteristics  of  the  tree  bark  are  due  to  the  positions  and 
kinds  of  tissue  of  these  new  layers  of  cork.  Each  tree  has  its  own 
kind  of  bark,  and  the  bark  of  some  is  so  characteristic  as  to  make 
the  tree  easily  recognizable. 


LErtTlCEL 


Fig.  4.     Diagram  of  Cross-section  of  Three 
Year  Old  Stem  of  Bassvvood. 


14  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

Bark  may  be  classified  according  to  formation  and  method  of 
separation,  as  scale  bark,  which  detaches  from  the  tree  in  plates,  as 
in  the  willows ;  membraneous  bark,  which  comes  off  in  ribbons  and 
films,  as  in  the  birches;  fibrous  bark,  which  is  in  the  form  of  stiff 
threads,  as  in  the  grape  vine;  and  fissured  bark,  which  breaks  up 
in  longitudinal  fissures,  showing  ridges,  grooves  and  broad,  angular 
patches,  as  in  oak,  chestnut  and  locust.  The  last  is  the  commonest 
form  of  bark. 

The  bark  of  certain  kinds  of  trees,  as  cherry  and  birch,  has  pe- 
culiar markings  which  consist  of  oblong  raised  spots  or  marks,  es- 
pecially on  the  young  branches.  These  are  called  lenticels  (Latin  len- 
ticula,  freckle),  and  have  two  purposes:  they  admit  air  to  the  internal 
tissues,  as  it  were  for  breathing,  and  they  also  emit  water  vapor. 
These  lenticels  are  to  be  found  on  all  trees,  even  where  the  bark  is 
very  thick,  as  old  oaks  and  chestnuts,  but  in  these  the  lenticels  are 
in  the  bottoms  of  the  deep  cracks.  There  is  a  great  difference  in  the 
inflammability  of  bark,  some,  like  that  of  the  big  trees  of  California, 
Fig.  54,  p.  209,  which  is  often  two  feet  thick,  being  practically  in- 
combustible, and  hence  serving  to  protect  the  tree;  while  some  bark, 
as  canoe  birch,  is  laden  with  an  oil  which  burns  furiously.  It  there- 
fore make?  admirable  kindling  for  camp  fires,  even  in  wet  weather. 

Inside  the  cork  is  the  "phloem"  or  "bast,"  which,  by  the  way, 
gives  its  name  to  the  bass  tree,  the  inner  bark  of  which  is  very  tough 
and  fibrous  and  therefore  used  for  mat  and  rope  making.  In  a  liv- 
ing tree,  the  bast  fibers  serve  to  conduct  the  nourishment  which  has 
been  made  in  the  leaves  down  thru  the  stem  to  the  growing  parts. 

(2)  The  cambium.  Inside  of  the  rind  and  between  it  and  the 
wood,  there  is,  on  living  trees,  a  slimy  coat  called  cambium  (Med. 
Latin,  exchange).  This  is  the  living,  growing  part  of  the  stem, 
familiar  to  all  who  have  peeled  it  as  the  sticky,  slimy  coat  between 
the  bark  and  the  wood  of  a  twig.  This  is  what  constitutes  the  fra- 
grant, mucilaginous  inner  part  of  the  bark  of  slippery  elm.  Cambium 
is  a  tissue  of  young  and  growing  cells,  in  which  the  new  cells  are 
formed,  the  inner  ones  forming  the  wood  and  the  outer  ones  the  bark. 

In  order  to  understand  the  cambium  and  its  function,  consider  its 
appearance  in  a  bud,  Fig.  5.  A  cross-section  of  the  bud  of  a  growing 
stem  examined  under  the  microscope,  looks  like  a  delicate  mesh  of  thin 
membrane,  filled  in  with  a  viscid  semi-fluid  substance  which  is  called 
"protoplasm"  (Greek,  protos,  first;  plasma,  form).  These  meshes 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   WOOD. 


15 


were  first  called  "cells"  by  Eobert  Hooke,  in  1667,  because  of  their 
resemblance  to  the  chambers  of  a  honeycomb.  The  walls  of  these 
"cells"  are  their  most  prominent  feature  and,  when  first  studied, 
were  supposed  to  be  the  essential  part;  but  later  the  slimy,  colorless 
substance  which  filled 
the  cells  was  found  to 
be  the  essential  part. 
This  slimy  substance, 
called  protoplasm,  con- 
stitutes the  primal  stuff 
of  all  living  things.  The 
cell  walls  themselves  are 
formed  from  it.  These 
young  cells,  at  the  apex 
of  a  stem,  are  all  alike, 
very  small,  filled  with 
protoplasm,  and  as  yet, 
unaltered.  They  form 
embryonic  tissue,  i.  e. 
one  which  will  change. 
One  change  to  which  any 
cell  filled  with  proto- 
plasm is  liable  is  divi- 
sion into  two,  a  new  par- 
tition wall  forming  with- 
in it.  This  is  the  way 
plant  cells  increase. 

In  young  plant  cells, 
the  whole  cavity  of  the 
chamber  is  filled  with 
protoplasm,  but  as  the 
cells  grow  older  and 
larger,  the  protoplasm 
develops  into  different 
parts,  one  part  forming  the  cell  wall  and  in  many  cases  leaving  cavi- 
ties within  the  cell,  which  become  filled  with  sap.  The  substance  of 
the  cell  wall  is  called  cellulose  (cotton  and  flax  fibers  consist  of  al- 
most pure  cellulose).  At  first  it  has  no  definite  structure,  but  as 
growth  goes  on,  it  may  become  thickened  in  layers,  or  gummy,  or 


Fig.  5.  Young  Stem,  Magnified  18^  Diameters,  Show- 
ing Primary  and  Secondary  Bundles.  By  Courtesy  of 
Mrs.  Katharine  Golden  Bitting. 

E,  epidermis,  tbe  single  outside  laver  of  cells. 
C,  cortex,  the  region  outside  of  the  bundles. 

HB,  hard  bast,  the  black,  irregular  ring  protecting 
the  soft  bast. 

SB,  soft  bast,  the  light,  crescent-shaped  parts. 
Ca,  cambium,  the  line  between  the  soft  bast  and  the 
wood. 

W,  wood,  segments  showing  pores. 

MR,  medullarj-  rays,  lines  between  the  bundles  con- 
necting the  pith  and  the  cortex. 

MS,  medullary  sheath,  the  dark,  irregular  ring  just 
inside  the  bundles. 

P,  pith,  the  central  mass  of  cells. 


16 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


hardened  into  lignin  (wood),  according  to  the  function  to  be  per- 
formed. Where  there  are  a  group  of  similar  cells  performing  the 
same  functions,  the  group  is  called  a  tissue  or,  if  large  enough,  a 
tissue  system. 

When  cells  are  changed  into  new  forms,  or  "differentiated,"  as  it 
is  called,  they  become  permanent  tissues.  These  permanent  tissues 
of  the  tree  trunk  constitute  the  various  parts  which  we  have  noticed, 
viz.,  the  rind,  the  pith  and  the  wood. 

The  essentially  living  part  of  the  tree,  it  should  be  remembered, 
is  the  protoplasm :  where  there  is  protoplasm,  there  is  life  and 


Fig-.  6.    Three  Stag-es  in  the  Development  of  an  Exogenous 

Stem.     P,  pith;  PB,  primary  bast;  SB,  secondary  bast;  C, 

cambium;  PR,  pith  ray;  PW,  primary  wood;  SW,  secondary 

wood;  PS,  procambium  strands.    After  Boulger. 

growth.  In  the  stems  of  the  conifers  and  broad-leaved  trees — some- 
times together  called  exogens — this  protoplasm  is  to  be  found  in  the 
buds  and  in  the  cambium  sheath,  and  these  are  the  growing  parts  of 
the  tree.  If  we  followed  up  the  sheath  of  cambium  which  envelopes 
a  stem,  into  a  terminal  bud,  we  should  find  that  it  passed  without 
break  into  the  protoplasm  of  the  bud. 

In  the  cross-section  of  a  young  shoot,  we  might  see  around  the. 
central  pith  or  medulla,  a  ring  of  wedge-shaped  patches.  These  afe 
really  bundles  of  cells  running  longitudinally  from  the  rudiments  of 
leaves  thru  the  stem  to  the  roots.  They  are  made  of  protoplasm >4ind 
are  called  the  "procambium  strands,"  Fig.  6. 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


In  the  monocotyledons  (endogens)  these  procambium  strands 
change  completely  into  wood  and  bast,  and  so  losing  all  their  proto- 
plasmic cambium,  become  incapable  of  further  growth.  This  is  why 
palms  can  grow  only  lengthwise,  or  else  by  forming  new  fibers  more 
densely  in  the  central  mass.  But  in  the  conifers  and  broad-leaved 
trees,  the  inner  part  of  each  strand  becomes  wood  and  the  outer  part 
bast  (bark).  Between  these  bundles,  connecting  the  pith  in  the  cen- 
ter with  the  cortex  on  the  outside  of  the  ring  of  bundles,  are  parts 
of  the  original  pith  tissue  of  the  stem.  They  are  the  primary  pith 
or  medullary  rays  (Latin,  medulla,  pith).  The  number  of  medullary 
rays  depends  upon  the  number  of  the  bundles;  and  their  form,  on 
the  width  of  the  bundles,  so  that  they  are  often  large  and  conspicu- 
ous, as  in  oak,  or  small  and  indeed  invisible,  as  in  some  of  the  coni- 
fers. But  they  are  present  in  all  exogenous  woods,  and  can  readily 
be  seen  with  the  microscope.  Stretching  across  these  pith  rays  from 
the  cambium  layer  in  one  procambium  strand  to  that  in  the  others, 
the  cambium  formation  extends,  making  a  complete  cylindrical  sheath 
from  the  bud  downward  over  the  whole  stem.  This  is  the  cambium 
sheath  and  is  the  living,  growing  part  of  the  stem  from  which  is 
formed  the  wood  on  the  inside  and  the  rind  (bark)  on  the  outside. 

In  the  first  year  the  wood 
and  the  bast  are  formed  di- 
rectly by  the  growth  and 
change  of  the  inner  and  outer 
cells  respectively  of  the  pro- 
cambium  strand,  and  all  such 
material  is  called  "primary;" 
but  in  subsequent  years  all 
wood,  pith  rays,  and  bast, 
originate  in  the  cambium,,  and 
these  growths  are  called  "sec- 
ondary." 

(3)  The  wood  of  most 
exogens  is  made  up  of  two 
parts,  a  lighter  part  called  the 

sap-wood  or  splint-wood  or  alburnum,  and  a  darker  part  called  the 
heart-wood  or  duramen,  Fig.  7.  Sap-wood  is  really  immature  heart- 
wood.  The  difference  in  color  between  them  is  very  marked  in  some 
woods,  as  in  lignum  vitae  and  black  walnut,  and  very  slight  in  others. 


Fig-.  7.     Sap-wood  and 
Heart-wood,  Lignum  Vitac. 


18 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


as  spruce  and  bass.    Indeed,  some  species  never  form  a  distinct  heart- 
wood,  birch  (Betula  alba)  being  an  example. 

In  a  living  tree,  sap-wood  and  heart-wood  perform  primarily 
quite  different  functions.  The  sap-wood  carries  the  water  from  the 
roots  to  the  leaves,  stores  away  starch  at  least  in  winter,  and  in  other 
ways  assists  the  life  of  the  tree.  The  proportional  amount  of  sap- 
wood  varies  greatly,  often,  as  in  long-leaf  pine,  constituting  40  per 
cent,  of  the  stem. 

As  the  sap-wood  grows  older,  its  cells  become  choked  so  that  the 

sap  can  no  longer  flow 
thru  them.  It  loses  its 
protoplasm  and  starch 
and  becomes  heart- 
wood,  in  which  all 
cells  are  dead  and 
serve  only  the  me- 
chanical function  of 
holding  up  the  great 
weight  of  the  tree  and 
in  resisting  wind  pres- 
sures. This  is  the  rea- 
son why  a  tree  may 
become  decayed  and 
hollow  and  yet  be  alive 
and  bear  fruit.  In  a 
tree  that  is  actually 
dead  the  sap-wood  rots 
first. 

Chemical  s  u  b  - 
stances  infiltrate  into 
the  cell  walls  of  heart- 
wood  and  hence  it  has  a  darker  color  than  the  sap-wood.  Persimmon 
turns  black,  walnut  purplish  brown,  sumac  yellow,  oak  light  brown, 
tulip  and  poplar  yellowish,  redwood  and  cedar  brownish  red.  Many 
woods,  as  mahogany  and  oak,  darken  under  exposure,  which  shows 
that  the  substances  producing  the  color  are  oxidizable  and  unstable. 
Wood  dyes  are  obtained  by  boiling  and  distilling  such  woods  as  su- 
mach, logwood,  red  sanders,  and  fustic.  Many  woods  also  acquire 
distinct  odors,  as  camphor,  sandalwood,  cedar,  cypress,  pine  and 
mahogany,  indicating  the  -presence  of  oil. 


Fig-.  8.     Section  of  Doug-las  Fir,  Showing-  Annual 

Ring-s  and  Knots  at  Center  of  Trunk.    American 

Museum  of  Natural  History,  N.  T. 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   WOOD. 


19 


As  a  rule  heart-wood  is  more  valuable  for  timber,  being  harder, 
heavier,  and  drier  than  sap-wood.  In  woods  like  hickory  and  ash, 
however,  which  are  used  for  purposes  that  require  pliability,  as  in 
baskets,  or  elasticity  as  in  handles  of  rakes  and  hoes,  sap-wood  is 
more  valuable  than  heart-wood. 

In  a  transverse  section  of  a  conifer,  for  example  Douglas  spruce, 
Fig.  8,  the  wood  is  seen  to  lie  in  concentric  rings,  the  outer  part  of 
the  ring  being  darker  in  color  than  the  inner  part.  In  reality  each 
of  these  rings  is  a  section  of  an  irregular  hollow  cone,  each  cone  en- 
veloping its  inner  neighbor.  Each  cone  ordinarily 
constitutes  a  year's  growth,  and  therefore  there 
is  a  greater  number  of  them  at  the  base  of  a  tree 
than  higher  up.  These  cones  vary  greatly  in 
Uiickncss,  or,  looking  at  a  cross-section,  the  rings 
vary  in  width;  in  general,  those  at  the  center 
being  thicker  than  those  toward  the  bark.  Va- 
riations from  year  to  year  may  also  be  noticed, 
showing  that  the  tree  was  well  nourished  one 
year  and  poorly  nourished  another  year.  Rings, 
however,  do  not  always  indicate  a  year's  growth. 
"False  rings"  are  sometimes  formed  by  a  cessa- 
tion in  the  growth  due  to  drouth,  fire  or  other 
accident,  followed  by  renewed  growth  the  same 
season. 

In   a  radial  section  of  a  log,   Fig.   8,  these 
"rings"'  appear  as  a  series  of  parallel  lines  and 
if  one  could  examine  a  long  enough  log  these 
lines  would  converge,  as  would  the  cut  edges  in  a  nest  of  cones,  if 
they  were  cut  up  thru  the  center,  as  in  Fig.  9. 

In  a  tangential  section,  the  lines  appear  as  broad  bands,  and 
since  almost  no  tree  grows  perfectly  straight,  these  lines  are  wavy, 
and  give  the  charactistic  pleasing  "grain"  of  wood.  Fig.  27,  p.  35. 
The  annual  rings  can  sometimes  be  discerned  in  the  bark  as  well  as 
in  the  wood,  as  in  corks,  which  are  made  of  the  outer  bark  of  the 
cork  oak,  a  product  of  southern  Europe  and  northern  Africa.  Fig.  10. 

The  growth  of  the  wood  of  exogenous  trees  takes  place  thru  the 
ability,  already  noted,  of  protoplasmic  cells  to  divide.  The  cambium 
cells,  which  have  very  thin  walls,  are  rectangular  in  shape,  broader 
tangentially  than  radially,  and  tapering  above  and  below  to  a  chisel 


Fig.  9.  Diagram  of 
Radial  Section  of 
Log-  (exaggerated) 
Showing  Annual 
Cones  of  Growth. 


20 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Fig.  10.     Annual  King-s  in 
Bark  (cork). 


edge,  Fig.  11.     After  they  have  grown  somewhat  radially,  partition 

walls  form  across  them  in  the  longitudinal,  tangential  direction,  so 

that  in  place  of  one  initial  cell,  there  are  two  daughter  cells  radially 

disposed.     Each   of   these   small   cells   grows   and   re-divides,   as   in 

Fig.  12.  Finally  the  inner- 
most cell  ceases  to  divide,  and 
uses  its  protoplasm  to  become 

jfl  X        A  thick  and  hard  wood.     In  like 

manner  the  outermost  cambium 
cell  becomes  bast,  while  the  cells 
between  them  continue  to  grow 
and  divide,  and  so  the  process 
goes  on.  In  nearly  all  stems, 

there  is  much  more  abundant  formation  of  wood  than  of  bast  cells. 

In  other  words,  more  cambium  cells  turn  to  wood  than  to  bast. 

In  the  spring  when  there  is  comparatively  little  light  and  heat, 

when  the  roots   and  leaves  are  inactive   and  feeble,   and  when  the 

bark,    split    by    winter, 

does     not     bind     very 

tightly,  the  inner  cam- 
bium cells  produce  ra- 
dially wide  wood  cells 

with      relatively      thin 

walls.    These  constitute 

the  spring  wood.     But 

in   summer   the   jacket 

of   bark   binds    tightly, 

there  is  plenty  of  heat 

and     light,     and     the 

leaves     and    roots     are 

very  active,  so  that  the 

cambium   cells   produce 

thicker      walled      cells, 

called     summer     wood. 

During  the  winter  the 

trees      rest,      and      no 

development  takes  place  until  spring,  when  the  large  thin-walled  cells 

are  formed  again,  making  a  sharp  contrast  with  those  formed  at  the 

end  of  the  previous  season. 


Fig-.   11.      Diagram   Showing  Grain    of    Spruce 

Highly  Magnified.     PR,  pith  rays;  BP,  bordered 

pits;    Sp  W,  spring  wood;  SW,  summer  wood; 

CC,  overlapping  of  chisel  shaped  ends. 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD.  21 

It  is  only  at  the  tips  of  the  branches  that  the  cambium  cells  grow 
much  in  length;  so  that  if  a  nail  were  driven  into  a  tree  twenty 
years  old  at,  say,  four  feet  from  the  ground,  it  would  still  be  four 
feet  from  the  ground  one  hundred  years  later. 

Looking  once  more  at  the  cross-section,  say,  of  spruce,  the  inner 
portion  of  each  ring  is  lighter  in  color  and  softer  in  texture  than 
the  outer  portion.  On  a  radial  or  tangential  section,  one's  finger 
nail  can  easily  indent  the  inner  portion  of  the  ring,  tho  the  outer 
dark  part  of  the  ring  may  be  very  hard.  The  inner,  light,  soft 
portion  of  the  ring  is  the 
part  that  grows  in  the 
spring  and  early  summer, 
and  is  called  the  "spring 

Fig-.  12.Diagram  Showing-  the  Modeof  Div  i- 

wood"    while    the    part    that  sion  of  lh.e  ^a™bium.  c*Us- .  ™?  cambium 

cell    is   shaded   to  distinguish  it  from    the 

crrnwQ    lafpr    in     flip    «5Pa<?on    i^  cells  derived  from  it.     Note  in   the  last  di- 

vision at  the  right  that  ihe  inner  daughter 

ppllprl     "sjnmmpr     wnnrl  "       A<?  cell   becomes  the   cambium  cell  while    the 

WOOd.          AS  outer  cell  developg  into  a  bast  celh    From 

the      Summer      WOOd      is      hard  Curtis:    Nature  and  Development  of  Plants. 

and  heavy,  it  largely  deter- 
mines the  strength  and  weight  of  the  wood,  so  that  as  a  rule,  the 
greater  the  proportion  of  the  summer  growth,  the  better  the  wood. 
This  can  be  controlled  to  some  extent  by  proper  forestry  methods,  as 
is  done  in  European  larch  forests,  by  "underplanting"  them  with 
beech. 

In  a  normal  tree,  the  summer  growth  forms  a  greater  proportion 
of  the  wood  formed  during  the  period  of  thriftiest  growth,  so  that 
in  neither  youth  nor  old  age,  is  there  so  great  a  proportion  of  sum- 
mer wood  as  in  middle  age. 

It  will  help  to  make  clear  the  general  structure  of  wood  if  one 
imagines  the  trunk  of  a  tree  to  consist  of  a  bundle  of  rubber  tubes 
crushed  together,  so  that  they  assume  angular  shapes  and  have  no 
spaces  between  them.  If  the  tubes  are  laid  in  concentric  layers,  first 
a  layer  which  has  thin  walls,  then  successive  layers  having  thicker 
and  thicker  walls,  then  suddenly  a  layer  of  thin-walled  tubes  and  in- 
creasing again  to  thick-walled  ones  and  so  on,  such  an  arrangement 
would  represent  the  successive  annual  "rings"  of  conifers. 

The  medullary  rays.  While  most  of  the  elements  in  wood  run 
longitudinally  in  the  log,  it  is  also  to  be  noted  that  running  at  right 
angles  to  these  and  radially  to  the  log,  are  other  groups  of  cells 
called  pith  rays  or  medullary  rays  (Latin,  medulla,  which  means 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


pith).  These  are  the  large  "silver  flakes'7  to  be  seen  in  quartered 
oak,  which  give  it  its  beautiful  and  distinctive  grain,  Fig.  32,  p.  38. 
They  appear  as  long,  grayish  lines  on  a  cross-section,  as  broad,  shin- 
ing bands  on  the  radial  section,  and  as  short,  thick  lines  tapering  at 
each  end  on  the  tangential  section.  In  other  words,  they  are  like 
flat,  rectangular  plates  standing  on  edge  and  radiating  lengthwise 
from  the  center  of  the  tree.  They  vary  greatly  in  size  in  different 
woods.  In  sycamore  they  are  very  prominent,  Fig.  13.  In  oak  they 
are  often  several  hundred  cells  wide  (i.  e.,  up  and  down  in  the  tree). 

This  may  amount  to  an 
inch  or  two.  They  are 
often  twenty  cells  thick, 
tapering  to  one  cell  at 
the  edge.  In  oak  very 
many  are  also  small, 
even  microscopic.  But 
in  the  conifers  and  also 
in  some  of  the  broad- 
leaved  trees,  altho  they 
can  be  discerned  with 
the  naked  eye  on  a  split 
radial  surface,  still  they 
are  all  very  small.  In 
pine  there  are  some  15,- 
000  of  them  to  a  square 
inch  of  a  tangential  sec- 
.tion.  They  are  to  be 
found  in  all  exogens.  In 

a  cross-section,  say  of  oak,  Fig.  14,  it  can  readily  be  seen  that  some 
pith  rays  begin  at  the  center  of  the  tree  and  some  farther  out.  Those 
that  start  from  the  pith  are  formed  the  first  year  and  are  called  pri- 
mary pith  rays,  while  those  that  begin  in  a  subsequent  year,  starting 
at  the  cambium  of  that  year,  are  called  secondary  rays. 

The  function  of  the  pith  rays  is  twofold.  (1)  They  transfer 
formative  material  from  one  part  of  a  stem  to  another,  communicat- 
ing with  both  wood  and  bark  by  means  of  the  simple  and  bordered 
pits  in  them,  and  (2)  they  bind  the  trunk  together  from  pith  to 
bark.  On  the  other  hand  their  presence  makes  it  easier  for  the 
wood  to  split  radially.  ( 


Fig.  13.  Tangential  Section  of  Sycamore,  Mag- 
nified 37  Diameters.     Note  the  large  size  of  the 
pith  rays,  A,  A  (end  view). 


THE   STRUCTURE   OP   WOOD. 


23 


The  substance  of  which  they  are  composed  is  "parenchyma" 
(Greek,  beside,  to  pour),  which  also  constitutes  the  pith,  the  rays 
forming  a  sort  of  connecting  link  between  the  first  and  last  growth 
of  the  tree,  as  the  cambium  cells  form  new  wood  each  year. 

If  a  cambium  cell  is  opposite  to  a  pith  ray,  it  divides  crosswise 
(transversely)    into    eight    or    ten    cells    one    above    another,    which 
stretch  out  radi- 
ally,      retaining 
their  protoplasm, 
and   so   continue 
the  pith  ray 

As  the  tree 
grow  s  larger, 
new,  or  second 
ary  medullary 
ray?  start  from 
the  cambium 
then  active,  so 
that  every  yeai 
new  rays  are 
formed  both 
thinner  a  n  d 
shorter  than  the 
primary  rays, 
Fig.  14, 

iSTow     suppose 
that  laid  among 

the  ordinary  thin-walled  tubes  were  quite  large  tubes,  so  that  one 
could  tell  the  "ring"  not  only  by  the  thin  walls  but  by  the  presence 
of  large  tubes.  That  would  represent  the  ring-porous  woods,  and  the 
large  tubes  would  be  called  vessels,  or  tracJiece.  Suppose  again  that 
these  large  tubes  were  scattered  in  disorder  thru  the  layers.  This  ar- 
rangement would  represent  the  diffuse-porous  woods. 

By  holding  up  to  the  light,  thin  cross-sections  of  spruce  or  pine, 
Fig.  15,  oak  or  ash,  Fig.  16,  and  bass  or  maple,  Fig.  17,  these  three 
quite  distinct  arrangements  in  the  structure  may  be  distinguished. 
This  fact  has  led  to  the  classification  of  woods  according  to  the 
presence  and  distribution  of  "pores,"  or  as  they  are  technically  called, 
"vessels"  or  "tracheae."  Bv  this  classification  we  have: 


. 14 


Cross  section  of  White   Oak.    The  Radiating-  White 
Lines  are  the  Pith  Ra3Ts. 


24 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


(1)  Non-porous  woods,  which  comprise  the  conifers,  as  pine  and 
spruce. 

(2)  Ring -porous  woods,  in  which  the  pores  appear   (in  a  cross- 
section)  in  concentric  rings,  as  in  chestnut,  ash  and  elm. 

(3)  Diffuse-porous  woods,  in  which  (in  a  cross-section)  the  rings 

are  scattered  ir- 
regularly thru 
the  wood,  as  in 
bass,  maple  and 
yellow  poplar. 

In  order  to 
fully  understand 
the  structure  of 
wood,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  exam- 
ine it  still  more 
closely  thru  the 
microscope,  and 
since  the  three 
classes  of  wood, 
non-porous,  ring- 
porous  and  dif- 
fuse-porous, dif- 
fer considerably 
in  their  minute 

structure,  it  is  well  to   consider  them   separately,  taking  the   sim- 
plest first. 

Non-porous  woods.     In  examining  thru  the  microscope  a  trans- 
verse section  of  white  pine,  Fig.  18 : 

(1)  The  most  noticeable  characteristic  is  the  regularity  of  ar- 
rangement of  the  cells.     They  are  roughly  rectangular  and  arranged 
in  ranks  and  files. 

(2)  Another  noticeable  feature  is  that  they  are  arranged  in  belts, 
the  thickness  of  their  walls  gradually  increasing  as  the  size  of  the 
cells   diminishes.     Then  the  large  thin-walled  cells  suddenly  begin 
again,  and  so  on.     The  width  of  one  of  these  belts  is  the  amount  of 
a  single  year's  growth,  the  thin-walled  cells  being  those  that  formed 
in  spring,  and  the  thick-walled  ones  those  that  formed  in  summer, 
the  darker  color  of  the  summer  wood  as  well  as  its  greater  strength 
being  caused  by  there  being  more  material  in  the  same  volume. 


Fig.  15.     Cross-section  of  JN  on-porous  Wood,  White 
Pine,  Full  Size  (top  toward  pith). 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


25 


Fig-.  16. 


Cross-section  of  King-porous  Wood,  White 
Ash,  Full  Size  (top  toward  pith). 


Fig.  17.    Cross-section   of   Diffuse-porous  Wood,  Hard 
Maple,  full  size  (top  toward  pith). 


26  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

(3)  Eunning  radially  (up  and  down  in  the  picture)  directly  thru 
the  annual  belts  or  rings  are  to  be  seen  what  looks  like  fibers.    These 
are  the  pith  or  medullary  rays.     They  serve  to  transfer  formative 
material  from  one  part  of  the  stem  to  another  and  to  bind  the  tree 
together  from  pith  to  bark. 

(4)  Scattered  here  and  there  among  the  "regular  cells,  are  to  be 
seen  irregular  gray  or  yellow  dots  which  disturb  the  regularity  of 
the  arrangement.    These  are  resin  ducts.     (See  cross-section  of  white 
pine.  Fig.  18.)     They  are  not  cells,  but  openings  between  cells,  in 
which  the  resin,  an  excretion  of  the  tree,  accumulates,   oozing  out 
when  the  tree  is  injured.    At  least  one  function  of  resin  is  to  protect 
the  tree  from  attacks  of  fungi. 

Looking  now  at  the  radial  section,  Fig.  18: 

(5)  The  first  thing  to  notice  is  the  straightness  of  the  long  cells 
and  their  overlapping  where  they  meet  endwise,  like  the  ends  of  two 
chisels  laid  together,  Fig.  11. 

(6)  On  the  walls  of  the  cells  can  be  seen  round  spots  called  "pits." 
These  are  due  to  the  fact  that  as  the  cell  grows,  the  cell  walls  thicken, 
except  in  these  small  spots,  where  the  walls  remain  thin  and  delicate. 
The  pit  in  a  cell  wall  always  coincides  with  the  pit  in  an  adjoining 
cell,  there  being  only  a  thin  membrane  between,  so  that  there  is  prac- 
tically free  communication  of  fluids  between  the   two  cells.     In  a 
cross-section  the  pit  appears  as  a  canal,  the  length  of  which  depends 
upon  the  thickness  of  the  walls.    In  some  cells,  the  thickening  around 
the  pits  becomes  elevated,  forming  a  border,  perforated  in  the  center. 
Such  pits  are  called  bordered  pits.     These  pits,  both  simple  and  bor- 
dered, are  waterways  between  the  different  cells.     They  are  helps  in 
carrying  the  sap  up  the  tree. 

(7)  The  pith  rays  are  also  to  be  seen  running  across  and  inter- 
woven in  the  other  cells.     It  is  to  be  noticed  that  they  consist  of 
several  cells,  one  above  another. 

In  the  tangential  section,  Fig.  18 : 

(8)  The  straightness  and  overlapping  of  the  cells  is  to  be  seen 
again,  and 

(9)  The  numerous  ends  of  the  pith  rays  appear. 

In  a  word,  the  structure  of  coniferous  wood  is  very  regular  and 
simple,  consisting  mainly  of  cells  of  one  sort,  the  pith  rays  being 
comparatively  unnoticeable.  This  uniformity  is  what  makes  the  wood 
of  conifers  technically  valuable. 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


27 


woop 
PITH  RAYS 

CROSS   SECTION 


wooi>    RADIAL  SECTlOri 


DIAMETERS 


HOM-POROU5  WOOD   (WHITE 


Fig".  18. 


28 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


The  cells  of  conifers  are  called  tracheids,  meaning  "like  trachece" 
They  are  cells  in  which  the  end  walls  persist,  that  is,  are  not  ab- 
sorbed and  broken  down  when  they  meet  end  to  end.  In  other 
words,  conifers  do  not  have  continuous  pores  or  vessels  or  "trachea?" 
and  hence  are  called  "non-porous"  woods. 

But  in  other  woods,  the  ends'  of 
some  cells  which  meet  endwise  are  ab- 
sorbed, thus  forming  a  continuous  series 
of  elements  which  constitute  an  open 
tube.  Such  tubes  are  known  as  pores, 
or  vessels,  or  "tracheae,"  and  sometimes 
extend  thru  the  whole  stem.  Besides 
this  marked  difference  between  the  por- 
ous and  non-porous  woods,  the  porous 
woods  are  also  distinguished  by  the  fact 
that  instead  of  being  made  up,  like  the 
conifers  of  cells  of  practically  only  one 
kind,  namely  tracheids,  they  are  com- 
posed of  several  varieties  of  cells.  Be- 
sides the  tracheae  and  tracheids  already 
noted  are  such  cells  as  "wood  fiber," 
"fibrous  cells,"  and  "parenchyma."  Fig. 
19.  Wood  fiber  proper  has  much  thick- 
ened lignified  walls  and  no  pits,  and  its 
main  function  is  mechanical  support. 
Fibrous  cells  are  like  the  wood  fibers 
except  that  they  retain  their  proto- 
plasm. Parenchyma  is  composed  of 
vertical  groups  of  short  cells,  the  end 
ones  of  each  group  tapering  to  a  point, 
and  each  group  originates  from  the 
transverse  division  of  one  cambium  cell. 
They  are  commonly  grouped  around  the 
vessels  (tracheae).  Parenchyma  constitutes  the  pith  rays  and  other 
similar  fibers,  retains  its  protoplasm,  and  becomes  filled  with  starch 
in  autumn. 

The  most  common  type  of  structure  among  the  broad-leaved  trees 
contains  tracheae,  trachaeids,  woody  fiber,  fibrous  cells  and  paren- 
chyma. Examples  are  poplars,  birch,  walnut,  linden  and  locust.  In 


Fig-.  19.  Isolated  Fibers  and 
Cells,  a,  four  cells  of  wood 
parenchyma;  £,  two  cells  from 
a  pith  ray;  c,  a  single  cell  or 
joint  of  a  vessel,  the  open- 
ings, x,  x,  leading  into  its  up- 
per and  lower  neig-hbors;  rf, 
tracheid;  <•,  wood  fiber  proper. 
After  Roth. 


THE   STRUCTUKE   OF   WOOD. 


29 


some,  as  ash,  the  tracheids  are  wanting;    apple  and  maple  have  no 
woody  fiber,  and  oak  and  plum  no  fibrous  cells. 

This  recital  is  enough  to  show  that  the  wood  of  the  broad-leaved 
trees  is  much  more  complex  in  structure  than  that  of  the  conifers.    It 


DWME7ERS 


=*PITM  RAYS 

CR055*5ECTfOtt 


l»€   DIAMETERS 


PfTHR 


-PORE 
RADIAL  SECTiOh 


TAN6EMT1AL  SECTION 

RING-POROUS  WOOD  (WHITE  ASH) 


Fig.  20. 

is  by  means  of  the  number  and  distribution  of  these  elements  that 
particular  woods  are  identified  microscopically.  See  p.  289. 

Ring-porous  woods.  Looking  thru  the  microscope  at  a  cross-section 
of  ash,  a  ring-porous  wood,  Fig.  20 : 

(1)  The  large  round  or  oval  pores  or  vessels  grouped  mostly  in 
the  spring  wood  first  attract  attention.  Smaller  ones,  but  still  quite 


30  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

distinct,  are  to  be  seen  scattered  all  thru  the  wood.  It  is  by  the  num- 
ber and  distribution  of  these  pores  that  the  different  oak  woods  are 
distinguished,  those  in  white  oak  being  smaller  and  more  numerous, 
while  in  red  oak  they  are  fewer  and  larger.  It  is  evident  that  the 
greater  their  share  in  the  volume,  the  lighter  in  weight  and  the 
weaker  will  be  the  wood.  In  a  magnified  cross-section  of  some  woods, 
as  black  locust,  white  elm  and  chestnut,  see  Chap.  Ill,  beautiful  pat- 
terns are  to  be  seen  composed  of  these  pores.  It  is  because  of  the 
size  of  these  pores  and  their  great  number  that  chestnut  is  so  weak. 

(2)  The  summer  wood  is  also  distinguishable  by  the  fact  that,  as 
with  the  conifers,  its  cells  are  smaller  and  its  cell  walls  thicker  than 
those  of  the  spring  wood.    The  summer  wood  appears  only  as  a  nar- 
row, dark  line  along  the  largest  pores  in  each  ring. 

(3)  The  lines  of  the  pith  rays  are  very  plain  in  some  woods,  as  in 
oak.     No.  47,  Chap.  III. 

(4)  The  irregular  arrangement  and 

(5)  Complex  structure  are  evident,  and  these  are  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  wood  substance  consists  of  a  number  of  different  elements 
and  not  one  (tracheids)  as  in  the  conifers. 

Looking  at  the  radial  section,  Fig.  20 : 

(6)  If  the  piece  is  oak,  the  great  size  of  the  medullary  rays  is 
most  noticeable.     Fig.  32,  p.  38.     They  are  often  an  inch  or  more 
wide ;   that  is,  high,  as  they  grow  in  the  tree.    In  ash  they  are  plain, 
seen  thru  the  microscope,  but  are  not  prominent. 

(7)  The  interweaving  of  the  different  fibers  and  the  variety  of 
their  forms  show    the  structure  as  being  very  complex. 

In  the  tangential  section,.  Fig.  20 : 

(8)  The  pattern  of  the  grain  is  seen  to  be  marked  not  so  milch  by 
ihe  denseness  of  the  summer  wood  as  by  the  presence  of  the  ves- 
sels (pores). 

(9)  The  ends  of  the  pith  rays  are  also  clear. 

In  diffuse  porous  woods,  the  main  features  to  be  noticed  are:    In 
the  transverse  section,  Fig.  21 : 

(1)  The  irregularity  with  which  the  pores  are  scattered, 

(2)  The  fine  line  of  dense  cells  which  mark  the  end  of  the  year's 
growth, 

(3)  The  radiating  pith  rays, 

(4)  The  irregular  arrangement  and, 

( 5 )  The  complex  structure. 


THE    STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


81 


In  the  radial  section,  Fig.  21 : 

(6)  The  pith  rays  are  evident.    In  sycamore,  Xo.  53,  Chap.  Ill, 
they  are  quite  large. 

(7)  The  interweaving  of  the  fibers  is  to  be  noted  and  also  their 
varietv. 


PITH  RAYS' 

CROSS-SECTION 


JTH   RAYS  — 


196   DIAMETERS 


RADIAL  5EXTIOn 

37    DIAMETERS 


-POROUS     WOOD    CYELLOW   POPLAR) 


Fig.  21. 


In  the  tangential  section,  Fig.  21 : 

(8)  The  grain  is  to  be  traced  only  dimly,  but  the  fibers  are  seen 
to  run  in  waves  around  the  pith  rays. 

(9)  The  pith  rays,  the  ends  of  which  are  plainly  visible. 


32  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

THE  GRAIN   OF   WOOD. 

The  term  "grain"  is  used  in  a  variety  of  meanings  which  is  likely 
to  cause  confusion.  This  confusion  may  be  avoided,  at  least  in  part, 
by  distinguishing  between  grain  and  texture,  using  the  word  grain 
to  refer  to  the  arrangement  or  direction  of  the  wood  elements,  and  the 
word  texture  to  refer  to  their  size  or  quality,  so  far  as  these  affect  the 
structural  character  of  the  wood.  Hence  such  qualifying  adjectives 
as  coarse  and  fine,  even  and  uneven,  straight  and  cross,  including 
spiral,  twisted,  wavy,  curly,  mottled,  bird's-eye,  gnarly,  etc.,  may  all 
be  applied  to  grain  to  give  it  definite  meaning,  while  to  texture  the 
proper  modifying  adjectives  are  coarse  and  fine,  even  and  uneven. 

Usually  the  word  grain  means  the  pattern  or  "figure"  formed  by 
the  distinction  between  the  spring  wood  and  the  summer  wood.  If 
the  annual  rings  are  wide,  the  wood  is,  in  common  usage,  called 
"coarse  grained,"  if  narrow,  "fine  grained,"  so  that  of  two  trees  of 
the  same  species,  one  may  be  coarse  grained  and  the  other  fine 
grained,  depending  solely  on  the  accident  of  fast  or  slow  growth. 

The  terms  coarse  grain  and  fine  grain  are  also  frequently  used  to 
distinguish  such  ring-porous  woods  as  have  large  prominent  pores, 
like  chestnut  and  ash,  from  those  having  small  or  no  pores,  as  cherry 
and  lignum  vitae.  A  better  expression  in  this  case  would  be  coarse 
and  fine  textured.  When  such  coarse  textured  woods  are  stained,  the 
large  pores  in  the  spring  wood  absorb  more  stain  than  the  smaller 
elements  in  the  summer  wood,  and  hence  the  former  part  appears 
darker.  In  the  "fine  grained"  (or  better,  fine  textured,)  woods  the 
pores  are  absent  or  are  small  and  scattered,  and  the  wood  is  hard,  so 
that  they  are  capable  of  taking  a  high  polish.  This  indicates  the 
meaning  of  the  words  coarse  and  fine  in  the  mind  of  the  cabinet- 
maker, the  reference  being  primarily  to  texture. 

If  the  elements  of  which  a  wood  are  composed  are  of  approxi- 
mately uniform  size,  it  would  be  said  to  have  a  uniform  texture,  as 
in  white  pine,  while  uniform  grain  would  mean,  that  the  elements, 
tho  of  varying  sizes,  were  evenly  distributed,  as  in  the  diffuse-porous 
woods. 

The  term  "grain"  also  refers  to  the  regularity  of  the  wood  struc- 
ture. An  ideal  tree  would  be  composed  of  a  succession  of  regular 
cones,  but  few  trees  are  truly  circular  in  cross-section  and  even  in 
those  that  are  circular,  the  pith  is  rarely  in  the  center,  showing  that 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


33 


one  side  of  the  tree,  usually  the  south  side,  is  better  nourished  than 
the  other,  Fig.  14,  p.  23. 

The  normal  direction  of  the  fibers  of  wood  is  parallel  to  the  axis 
of  the  stem  in  which  they  grow.  Such  wood  is  called  "straight- 
grained/'  Fig.  22,  but  there  are  many  deviations  from  this  rule. 
Whenever  the  grain  of  the  wood  in  a  board  is,  in  whole  or  in  part. 


Fig-.  22.     Straight  Grained  Long-leat 
Pine  (full  size). 


Fig-.  23.     Mahog-any,  Showing-  Alte 
nately  Twisted  Grain  (full  size). 


Alter- 


oblique  to  the  sides  of  the  board,  it  is  called  "cross-grained/'  An  il- 
lustration of  this  is  a  bend  in  the  fibers,  due  to  a  bend  in  the  whole 
tree  or  to  the  presence  of  a  neighboring  knot.  This  bend  makes  the 
board  more  difficult  to  plane.  In  many  cases,  probably  in  more  cases 
than  not,  the  wood  fibers  twist  around  the  tree.  (See  some  of  the 
logs  in  Fig.  107,  p.  254.)  This  produces  "spiral"  or  "twisted"  grain. 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Fig-.  24.     Spiral  Grain  in  Cypress. 
After  Roth. 


Often,  as  in  mahogany  and 
sweet  gum,  the  fibers  of  several 
layers  twist  first  in  one  direc- 
tion and  then  those  of  the  next 
few  layers  twist  the  other  way, 
Fig.  24.  Such  wood  is  pecu- 
liarly cross-grained,  and  is  of 
course  hard  to  plane  smooth. 
But  when  a  piece  is  smoothly 
finished  the  changing  reflec- 
tion of  light  from  the  surface 
gives  a  beautiful  appearance, 
which  can  be  enhanced  by 
staining  and  polishing.  It 


Fig-.  25.     Planed  Surface  of  Wavy-Grained 
Maple  (full  size). 


Fig-.  26.     Split  Surface  of  Wavy-Grained 
Maple  (full  size). 


THE   STRUCTURE   OF   WOOD. 


35 


constitutes  the  characteristic  "grain"  of  striped  mahogany,  Fig.  23. 
It  is  rarely  found  in  the  inner  part  of  the  tree. 

Sometimes  the  grain  of  wood  is  "cross/'  because  it  is  "wavy"  either 
in  a  radial  or  a  tangential  section,  as  in  maple,  Fig.  25,  and  Fig.  26. 

"Curly  grain"  refers  to  the  figure  of  circlets  and  islets  and  con- 
tours, often  of  great  beauty,  caused  by  cutting  a  flat  surface  in 


.big.  47.     Curi>  Grained  L,ong-ieai  Pine 
(full  size). 


Fig-  28.    Curly  Yellow  Poplar 
(full  size). 


crooked-grained  wood.  See  Fig.  27,  curly  long-leaf  pine,  and  Fig.  28, 
yellow  poplar.  When  such  crookedness  is  fine  and  the  fibers  are  con- 
torted and,  as  it  were,  crowded  out  of  place,  as  is  common  in  and 
near  the  roots  of  trees,  the  effect  is  called  "burl,"  Fig.  29.  The  term 
burl  is  also  used  to  designate  knots  and  knobs  on  tree  trunks,  Fig.  31, 
Burl  is  used  chiefly  in  veneers. 


36  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

Irregularity  of  grain  is  often  caused  by  the  presence  of  adventi- 
tious and  dormant  buds,  which  may  be  plainly  seen  as  little  knobs 
on  the  surface  of  some  trees  under  the  bark.  In  most  trees,  these 
irregularities  are  soon  buried  and  smoothed  over  by  the  successive  an- 
nual layers  of  wood,  but  in  some  woods  there  is  a  tendency  to  pre- 
serve the  irregularities.  On  slash  (tangent)  boards  of  such  wood, 


Fig.  29.    Redwood  Burl  (full  size).  Fig.  30.    Bird's-eye  Maple  (full  size). 

a  great  number  of  little  circlets  appear,  giving  a  beautiful  grain,  as 
in  "Bird's-eye  maple,"  Fig.  30.  These  markings  are  found  to  pre- 
dominate in  the  inner  part  of  the  tree.  This  is  not  at  all  a  distinct 
variety  of  maple,  as  is  sometimes  supposed,  but  the  common  variety, 
in  which  the  phenomenon  frequently  appears.  Logs  of  great  value, 
having  bird's-eyes,  have  often  unsuspectingly  been  chopped  up  for 
fire  wood. 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   WOOD. 


37 


The  term  "grain"  may  also  mean  the  "figure"  formed  by  the 
presence  of  pith  rays,  as  in  oak,  Fig.  32,  or  beech,  or  the  word  "grain" 
may  refer  simply  to  the  uneven  deposit  of  coloring  matter  as  is  com- 
mon in  sweet  gum,  Fig.  33,  black  ash,  or  Circassian  walnut. 

The  presence  of  a  limb  constitutes  a  knot  and  makes  great  irregu- 
larity in  the  grain  of  wood,  Fig.  34.  In  the  first  place,  the  fibers  on 
the  upper  and  lower 
sides  of  the  limb  behave 
differently,  those  on  the 
lower  side  running  un- 
interruptedly from  the 
stem  into  the  limb,  while 
on  the  upper  side  the 
fibers  bend  aside  making 
an  imperfect  connection. 
Consequently  to  split  a 
knot  it  is  always  neces- 
sary to  start  the  split 
from  the  lower  side.  On 
the  other  hand  it  is  eas- 
ier to  split  around  a 
knot  than  thru  it.  The 
texture  as  well  as  the 
grain  of  wood  is  modi- 
fied by  the  presence  of  a 
branch.  The  wood  in 
and  around  a  knot  is 
much  harder  than  the 
main  body  of  the  trunk 
on  account  of  the  crowd- 
ing together  of  the  ele- 
ments. Knots  are  the 

remnants  of  branches  left  in  the  trunk.  These  once  had  all  tht  parts 
of  the  trunk  itself,  namely  bark,  cambium,  wood,  and  pith.  Nor- 
mally, branches  grow  from  the  pith,  tho  some  trees,  as  Jack  pine  and 
redwood,  among  the  conifers,  and  most  of  the  broad-leaf  trees  have 
the  power  of  putting  out  at  any  time  adventitious  buds  which  may 
develop  into  branches.  When  a  branch  dies,  the  annual  layer  of 
wood  no  longer  grows  upon  it,  but  the  successive  layers  of  wood  on 


Fig.  31.     Bnrl  on  White  Oak. 


38 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


the  trunk  itself  close  tighter  and  tighter  around  it,  until  it  is  broken 
off.  Then,  unless  it  has  begun  to  decay,  it  is  successively  overgrown 
by  annual  layers,  so  that  no  sign  of  it  appears  until  the  trunk  is  cut 
open.  A  large  trunk  perfectly  clean  of  branches  on  the  outside  may 
have  many  knots  around  its  center,  remnants  of  branches  which  grew 
there  in  its  youth,  as  in  Fig.  34,  and  Fig.  8,  p.  18.  The  general  ef- 


Fig.  32.    Figure  Formed  by  Pith  Rays 
in  Oak  (full  size). 


Fig  33.     Sweet  Gum,  Showing-  Uneven 
Deposit  of  Coloring  Matter  (full  size.) 


feet  of  the  presence  of  a  knot  is,  that  the  fibers  that  grow  around  and 
over  it  are  bent,  and  this,  of  course,  produces  crooked  grain. 

Following  are  the  designations  given  to  different  knots  by  lumber- 
men: A  sound  knot  is  one  which  is  solid  across  its  face  and  is  as 
hard  as  the  wood  surrounding  it  and  fixed  in  position.  A  pin  knot 
is  sound,  but  not  over  y^"  in  diameter.  A  standard  .knot  is  sound, 


THE   STRUCTURE    OF   WOOD. 


39 


but  not  over  \y2"  in  diameter.  A  large  knot  is  sound,  and  over  lJ/£" 
in  diameter.  A  spike  knot  is  one  sawn  in  a  lengthwise  position.  A 
dead,  or,  loose  knot  is  one  not  firmly  held  in  place  by  growth  or 
position. 

(4)  Pith.  At  the 
center  or  axis  of  the 
tree  is  the  pith  or 
medulla,  Fig.  34.  In 
every  bud,  that  is,  at 
the  apex  of  every  stem 
and  branch,  the  pith  is 
the  growing  part;  but 
as  the  stem  lengthens 
and  becomes  overgrown 
by  successive  layers  of 
wood  the  pith  loses  its 
vital  function.  It  does 
not  grow  with  the 
plant  except  at  the 
buds.  It  varies  in 
thickness,  being  very 
small,  — '  hardly  more 
than  1/16",  in  cedar 
and  larch, — and  so 
small  in  oak  as  to  be 
hardly  discernible;  and 
what  there  is  of  it 
turns  hard  and  dark. 
In  herbs  and  shoots  it 
is  relatively  large,  Fig. 
5,  p.  15,  in  a  three- 
year  old  shoot  of  el- 
der, for  example,  be- 
ing as  wide  as  the  wood.  In  elder,  moreover,  it  dies  early  and  pul- 
verizes, leaving  the  stem  hollow.  Its  function  is  one  of  only  tem- 
porary value  to  the  plant. 


Fig".  34.  Section  Thru  the  Trunk  of  a  Seven  Year 
Old  Tree,  Showing-  Relation  of  Branches  to  Main 
Stem.  A,  B,  two  branches  which  were  killed  after 
a  few  years'  growth  by  shading-,  and  which  have 
been  overgrown  by  the  annual  ring's  of  wood;  C,  a 
limb  which  lived  four  years,  then  died  and  broke 
off  near  the  stem,  leaving-  the  part  to  the  left  of 
XY  a  "sound"  knot,  and  the  part  to  the  right  a 
"dead"  knot,  which  unless  rotting-  sets  in,  would 
in  time  be  entirely  covered  by  the  growing-  trunk; 
D,  a  branch  that  has  remained  alive  and  has  in- 
creased in  size  like  the  main  stem;  P,  P,  pith  of 
both  stem  and  limb. 


40 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


THE  STRUCTURE  OF   WOOD. 


REFERENCES  :  * 

Roth,  Forest  Bull.  No.  10,  pp.  11- 

23. 

Boulger,  pp.  1-39. 
Sickles,  pp.  11-20. 
Pinchot,  Forest  Bull.  No.  24,  I,  pp. 

11-24. 

Keeler,  pp.   514-517. 
Curtis,  pp.   62-85. 
Woodcraft,  15:   3,  p.  90. 


Bitting,    Wood    Craft,    5:    76,    106, 
144,  172,    (June-Sept.  1906). 

Ward,  pp.   1-38. 

Encyc.  Brit.,  llth  Ed.,  "Plants," 
p.  741. 

Strasburger,  pp.   120-144  and  Part 
II,  Sec.  II. 

Snow,  pp.  7-9,  183. 


general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  II. 
PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD. 

There  are  many  properties  of  wood, — some  predominant  in  one 
species,  some  in  another,, — that  make  it  suitable  for  a  great  variety 
of  uses.  Sometimes  it  is  a  combination  of  properties  that  gives  value 
to  a  wood.  Among  these  properties  are  hygroscopicity,  shrinkage, 
weight,  strength,  cleavability,  elasticity,  hardness,  and  toughness. 

THE    HYGROSCOPICITY1    OF    WOOD. 

It  is  evident  that  water  plays  a  large  part  in  the  economy  of  the 
tree.  It  occurs  in  wood  in  three  different  ways:  In  the  sap  which 
fills  or  partly  fills  the  cavities  of  the  wood  cells,  in  the  cell  walls  which 
it  saturates,  and  in  the  live  protoplasm,  of  which  it  constitutes  90 
per  cent.  The  younger  the  wood,  the  more  water  it  contains,  hence 
the  sap-wood  contains  much  more  than  the  heart-wood,  at  times  even 
twice  as  much. 

In  fresh  sap-wood,  60  per  cent,  of  the  water  is  in  the  cell  cavities, 
35  per  cent,  in  the  cell  walls,  and  only  5  per  cent,  in  the  protoplasm. 
There  is  so  much  water  in  green  wood  that  a  sappy  pole  will  soon 
sink  when  set  afloat.  The  reason  why  there  is  much  less  water  in 
heart-wood  is  because  its  cells  are  dead  and  inactive,  and  hence  with- 
out sap  and  without  protoplasm.  There  is  only  what  saturates  the 
cell  walls.  Even  so,  there  is  considerable  water  in  heart-wood.2 


hygroscopicity,  "the  property  possessed  by  vegetable  tissues  of  absorb- 
ing or  discharging  moisture  and  expanding  or  shrinking  accordingly." — 
Century  Dictionary. 

2  This  is  shown  by  the  following  table,  from  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  10, 
p.  31,  Timber,  by  Filibert  Roth: 

POUNDS    OF   WATER  LOST   IN   DRYING   100  POUNDS   OF   GREEN    WOOD  IN   THE  KILN. 

Sap-wood  or  Heart- wood 

outer  part,  or  interior. 

1.  Pines,   cedars,   spruces,    and   firs 45-65  16-25 

2.  Cypress,  extremely  variable    50-65  18-60 

3.  Poplar,  cottonwood,   basswood    60-65  40-60 

4.  Oak,   beech,  ash,  elm,  maple,  birch,  hickory,   chestnut, 

walnut,    and    sycamore    40-50  30-40 

41 


42  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

The  lighter  kinds  have  the  most  water  in  the  sap-wood,  thus 
sycamore  has  more  than  hickory. 

Curiously  enough,  a  tree  contains  about  as  much  water  in  winter 
as  in  summer.  The  water  is  held  there,  it  is  supposed,  by  capillary 
attraction,  since  the  cells  are  inactive,  so  that  at  all  times  the  water 
in  wood  keeps  the  cell  walls  distended. 

THE   SHRINKAGE   OF  WOOD. 

When  a  tree  is  cut  down,  its  water  at  once  begins  to  evaporate. 
This  process  is  called  "seasoning."1  In  drying,  the  free  water  within 
the  cells  keeps  the  cell  walls  saturated;  but  when  all  the  free  water 
has  been  removed,  the  cell  walls  begin  to  yield  up  their  moisture. 
Water  will  not  flow  out  of  wood  unless  it  is  forced  out  by  heat,  as 
when  green  wood  is  put  on  a  fire.  Ordinarily  it  evaporates  slowly. 

The  water  evaporates  faster  from  some  kinds  of  wood  than  from 
other  kinds,  e.  g.,  from  white  pine  than  from  oak,  from  small  pieces 
than  from  large,  and  from  end  grain  than  from  a  longitudinal  sec- 
tion ;  and  it  also  evaporates  faster  in  high  than  in  low  temperatures. 

Evaporation  affects  wood  in  three  respects,  weight,  strength,  and 
size.  The  weight  is  reduced,  the  strength  is  increased,  and  shrinkage 
takes  place.  The  reduction  in  weight  and  increase  in  strength,  im- 
portant as  they  are,  are  of  less  importance  than  the  shrinkage,  which 
often  involves  warping  and  other  distortions.  The  water  in  wood 
affects  its  size  by  keeping  the  cell  walls  distended. 

If  all  the  cells  of  a  piece  of  wood  were  the  same  size,  and  had 
walls  the  same  thickness,  and  all  ran  in  the  same  direction,  then  the 
shrinkage  would  be  uniform.  But,  as  we  have  seen,  the  structure  of 
wood  is  not  homogeneous.  Some  cellular  elements  are  large,  some 
small,  some  have  thick  walls,  some  thin  walls,  some  run  longitudinally 
and  some  (the  pith  rays)  run  radially.  The  effects  will  be  various 
in  differently  shaped  pieces  of  wood  but  they  can  easily  be  accounted 
for  if  one  bears  in  mind  these  three  facts :  ( 1 )  that  the  shrinkage  is 
in  the  cell  wall,  and  therefore  (2)  that  the  thick-walled  cells  shrink 
more  than  thin-walled  cells  and  (3)  that  the  cells  do  not  shrink 
much,  if  any,  lengthwise. 

(1)  The  shrinkage  of  wood  takes  place  in  the  walls  of  the  cells 
that  compose  it,  that  is,  the  cell  walls  become  thinner,  as  indicated 
by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  35,  which  is  a  cross-section  of  a  single  cell. 

*See  Handwork  in  Wood,  Chapter  III. 


PROPERTIES   OF   WOOD. 


43 


The  diameter  of  the  whole  cell  becomes  less,  and  the  opening,  or 
lumen,  of  the  cell  becomes  larger. 

(2)  Thick-walled  cells  shrink  more  than  thin-walled  cells,  that 
is,  summer  cells  more  than  spring  cells.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
they  contain  more  shrinkable  substance.  The  thicker  the  wall,  the 
more  the  shrinkage. 

Consider  the  effects  of  these 
changes;  ordinarily  a  log 
when  drying  begins  to  "check'' 
at  the  end.  This  is  to  be  ex- 


plained thus:  Inasmuch  as 
evaporation  takes  place  faster 
from  a  cross  than  from  a  lon- 
gitudinal section,  because  at 

the  cross-section  all  the  cells  are  cut  open,  it  is  to  be  expected  that 
the  end  of  a  piece  of  timber,  Fig.  36,  A,  will  shrink  first.  This 
would  tend  to  make  the  end  fibers  bend  toward  the  center  of  the 
piece  as  in  B,  Fig.  36.  But  the  fibers  are  stiff  and  resist  this  bend- 
ing with  the  result  that  the  end  splits  or  "checks"  as  in  C,  Fig.  36. 
But  later,  as  the  rest  of  the  timber  dries  out  and  shrinks,  it  becomes 
of  equal  thickness  again  and  the  "checks"  tend  to  close. 

(3)   For  some  reason,  which  has  not  been  discovered,  the  cells  or 
fibers   of  wood  do  not  shrink  in  length  to  any  appreciable  extent. 


Fig-.  35.     How  Cell  Walls  Shrink. 


Fig-.  36.    The  Shrinkage  and  Checking-  at  the  End  of  a  Beam. 

This  is  as  true  of  the  cells  of  pith  rays,  which  run  radially  in  the 
log,  as  of  the  ordinary  cells,  which  run  longitudinally  in  it. 

In  addition  to  "checking"  at  the  end,  logs  ordinarily  show  the 
effect  of  shrinkage  by  splitting  open  radially,  as  in  Fig.  37.     This  is 


44 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


to  be  explained  by  two  factors,  (1)  the  disposition  of  the  pith  (or 
medullary)  rays,  and  (2)  the  arrangement  of  the  wood  in  annual  rings. 

(1)  The  cells  of  the  pith  rays,  as  we  have  seen  in  Chapter  I,  run 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  mass  of  wood  fibers,  and  since 
they  shrink  according  to  the  same  laws  that  other  cells  do,  viz.,  by 
the  cell  wall  becoming  thinner  but  not  shorter,  the  strain  of  their 

shrinkage  is  contrary  to  that  of 
the  main  cells.  The  pith  rays, 
which  consist  of  a  number  of 
cells  one  above  the  other, 
tend  to  shrink  parallel  to  the 
length  of  the  wood,  and  what- 
ever little  longitudinal  shrinkage 
there  is  in  a  board  is  probably 
due  mostly  to  the  shrinkage  of 
the  pith  rays.  But  because  the 
cells  of  pith  rays  do  not  appre- 
ciably shrink  in  their  length,  this 
fact  tends  to  prevent  the  main 
body  of  wood  from  shrinking 
radially,  and  the  result  is  that 
wood  shrinks  less  radially  than 

tangentially.  Tangentially  is  the  only  way  left  for  it  to  shrink.  The 
pith  rays  may  be  compared  to  the  ribs  of  a  folding  fan,  which  keep 
the  radius  of  unaltered  length  while  permitting  comparative  freedom 
for  circumferential  contraction. 

(2)  It  is  evident  that  since   summer  wood  shrinks  more  than 
spring  wood,  this  fact  will  interfere  with  the  even  shrinkage  of  the 
log.      Consider  first   the  tangen- 
tial shrinkage.     If  a  section  of  a 

single  annual  ring  of  green  wood 
of  the  shape  A  B  C  D,  in  Fig. 
38,  is  dried  and  the  mass  shrinks 
according  to  the  thickness  of  the 


Fig.  37.     The  Shrinkage  and  Splitting 
of  a  Log. 


Fig.  38.    Diagram  to  Show  the  Greater 

Shrinkage  of  Summer  Cells,  A,  B,  than 

of  Spring  Cells,  C,  D. 


cell  walls,  it  will  assume  the 
shape  A'  B'  C'  D'.  When  a  num- 
ber of  rings  together  shrink,  the  tangential  shrinkage  of  the  summer 
wood  tends  to  contract  the  adjoining  rings  of  spring  wood  more  than 
they  would  naturally  shrink  of  themselves.  Since  there  is  more  of 


PROPERTIES   OF   WOOD. 


45 


the  summer-wood  substance,  the  spring-wood  must  yield,  and  the  log 
shrinks  circumferentially.  The  radial  shrinkage  of  the  summer-wood, 
however,  is  constantly  interrupted  by  the  alternate  rows  of  spring- 
wood,  so  that  there  would  not  be  so  much  radial  as  circumferential 
shrinkage.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  tangential  or  circumferential 
shrinkage  is  twice  as  great  as  the  radial  shrinkage. 

Putting  these  two  factors 
together,  namely,  the  length- 
wise resistance  of  the  pith  rays 
to  the  radial  shrinkage  of  the 
mass  of  other  fibers,  and  sec- 
ond, the  continuous  bands  of 
summer  wood,  comparatively 
free  to  shrink  circumferentially, 
and  the  inevitable  happens;  the 
log  splits.  If  the  bark  is  left 
on  and  evaporation  hindered, 
the  splits  will  not  open  so  wide. 

There  is  still  another  effect 
of  shrinkage.  If,  immediately 
after  felling,  a  log  is  sawn  in 

two  lengthwise,  the  radial  splitting  may  be  largely  avoided,  but  the 
flat  sides  will  tend  to  become  convex,  as  in  Fig.  39.  This  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  circumferential  shrinkage  is  greater  than 
radial  shrinkage. 

If  a  log  is  "quartered,"1  the  quarters  split  still  less,  as  the  inevitable 
shrinkage  takes  place  more  easily.  The  quarters  then  tend  to  assume 
the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  40,  C.  If  a  log  is  sawed  into  timber,  it  checks 
from  the  center  of  the  faces  toward  the  pith,  Fig.  40,  D.  Sometimes 
the  whole  amount  of  shrinkage  may  be  collected  in  one  large  split. 
When  a  log  is  slash-sawed,  Fig.  40,  I,  each  board  tends  to  warp  so 
that  the  concave  side  is  away  from  the  center  of  the  tree.  If  one 
plank  includes  the  pith,  Fig.  40,  E  and  H,  that  board  will  become 
thinner  at  its  edges  than  at  its  center,  i.  e.,  convex  on  both  faces. 
Other  forms  assumed  by  wood  in  shrinking  are  shown  in  Fig.  40. 
In  the  cases  A-F  the  explanation  is  the  same;  the  circumferential 
shrinkage  is  more  than  the  radial.  In  J  and  K  the  shapes  are  ac- 
counted for  by  the  fact  that  wood  shrinks  very  little  longitudinally. 

^ee  Handwork  in  Wood,  p.  42. 


Fig".  39.     Shrinkag-e  of  a  Halved  Log". 


46 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Fig.  40.     Shapes  Assumed  by  Wood  in  Shrinking-. 


PROPERTIES   OF   WOOD. 


47 


Warping  is  uneven  shrinkage,  one  side  of  the  board  contracting 
more  than  the  other.  Whenever  a  slash  board  warps  under  ordinary 
conditions,  the  convex  side  is  the  one  which  was  toward  the  center 
of  the  tree.  However,  a  board  may  be  made  to  warp  artificially  the 
other  way  by  applying  heat  to  the  side  of  the  board  toward  the 
center  of  the  tree,  and  by  keeping  the  other  side  moist.  The  board 
will  warp  only  sidewise;  lengthwise  it  remains  straight  unless  the 
treatment  is  very  severe.  This  shows  again  that  water  distends  the 
cells  laterally  but  not  longitudinally. 

The  thinning  of  the  cell  walls  due  to  evaporation,  is  thus  seen 
to  have  three  results,  all  included  in  the  term  "working,"  viz. : 
shrinkage.,  a  diminution  in  size,  splitting,  due  to  the  inability  of 
parts  to  cohere  under  the  strains  to  which  they  are  subjected,  and 
warping,  or  uneven  shrinkage. 

In  order  to  neutralize  warping  as  much  as  possible  in  broad  board 
structures,  it  is  common  to  joint  the  board  with  the  annual  rings  of 
each  alternate  board  curving  in  opposite  directions,  as  shown  in 
Handwork  in  Wood,  Fig.  280,  a,  p.  188. 

Under  warping  is  included 
bowing.  Bowing,  that  is,  bend- 
ing in  the  form  of  a  bow,  is, 
so  to  speak,  longitudinal  warp- 
ing. It  is  largely  due  to 
crookedness  or  irregularity  of 
grain,  and  is  likely  to  occur  in 
boards  with  large  pith  rays,  as 
oak  and  sycamore.  But  even 
a  straight-grained  piece  of 
wood,  left  standing  on  end  or 
subjected  to  heat  on  one  side 
and  dampness  on  the  other,  will 
bow,  as,  for  instance  a  board 
lying  on  the  damp  ground  and 
in  the  sun. 

Splitting  takes  various 
names,  according  to  its  form  in 

the  tree.  "Check"  is  a  term  used  for  all  sorts  of  cracks,  and  more 
particularly  for  a  longitudinal  crack  in  timber.  "Shakes"  are  splits 
of  various  forms  as :  star  shakes,  Fig.  41,  a,  splits  which  radiate  froro 


Fig-.  41.    a,  Star  Shakes;  6,  Heart  Shakes; 
c,  Cup  Shakes  or  Ring-  Shakes;  d,  Honey- 
combing-. 


48  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

the  pith  along  the  pith  rays  and  widen  outward;  heart  shakes,  Fig. 
41,  I,  splits  crossing  the  central  rings  and  widening  toward  the  cen- 
ter; and  cup  or  ring  shakes,  Fig.  41,  c,  splits  between  the  annual 
rings.  Honeycombing,  Fig.  41,  d,  is  splitting  along  the  pith  rays 
and  is  due  largely  to  case  hardening. 

These  are  not  all  due  to  shrinkage  in  drying,  but  may  occur  in 
the  growing  tree  from  various  harmful  causes.  See  p.  232. 

Wood  that  has  once  been  dried  may  again  be  swelled  to  nearly  if 
not  fully  its  original  size,  by  being  soaked  in  water  or  subjected  to 
wet  steam.  This  fact  is  taken  advantage  of  in  wetting  wooden 
wedges  to  split  some  kinds  of  soft  stone.  The  processes  of  shrinking 
and  swelling  can  be  repeated  indefinitely,  and  no  temperature  short 
of  burning,  completely  prevents  wood  from  shrinking  and  swelling. 

Eapid  drying  of  wood  tends  to  "case  harden"  it,  i.  e.,  to  dry  and 
shrink  the  outer  part  before  the  inside  has  had  a  chance  to  do  the 
same.  This  results  in  checking  separately  both  the  outside  and  the 
inside,  hence  special  precautions  need  to  be  taken  in  the  seasoning 
of  wood  to  prevent  this.  When  wood  is  once  thoroly  bent  out  of 
shape  in  shrinking,  it  is  very  difficult  to  straighten  it  again. 

Woods  vary  considerably  in  the  amounts  of  their  shrinkage.  The 
conifers  with  their  regular  structure  shrink  less  and  shrink  more 
evenly  than  the  broad-leaved  woods.3  Wood,  even  after  it  has  been 
well  seasoned,  is  subject  to  frequent  changes  in  volume  due  to  the 
varying  amount  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  This  involves  con- 
stant care  in  handling  it  and  wisdom  in  its  use.  These  matters  are 
considered  in  Handwork  in  Wood,  Chapter  III,  on  the  Seasoning  of 
Wood. 


3The  following  table  from  Roth,  p.  37,  gives  the  approximate  shrinkage 
of  a  board,  or  set  of  boards,  100  inches  wide,  drying  in  the  open  air: 

Shrinkage 
Inches. 

1.  All  light  conifers   (soft  pine,  spruce,  cedar,  cypress) , 3 

2.  Heavy   conifers    (hard  pine,   tamarack,   yew)    honey  locust,  box  elder, 

wood  of  old  oaks )    4 

3.  Ash,  elm,  walnut,  poplar,  maple,  beech,  sycamore,  cherry,  black  locust.      5 

4.  Basswood,  birch,  chestnut,  horse  chestnut,  blue  beech,  young  locust. ...     6 

5.  Hickory,  young  oak,  especially  red  oak Up  to  10 

The  figures  are  the  average  of  radial  and  tangential  shrinkages. 


PROPERTIES   OF  WOOD.  49 

THE  WEIGHT  OF  WOOD. 

Wood  substance  itself  is  heavier  than  water,  as  can  readily  be 
proved  by  immersing  a  very  thin  cross-section  of  pine  in  water.  Since 
the  cells  are  cut  across,  the  water  readily  enters  the  cavities,  and  the 
wood  being  heavier  than  the  water,  sinks.  In  fact,  it  is  the  air  en- 
closed in  the  cell  cavities  that  ordinarily  keeps  wood  afloat,  just  as 
it  does  a  corked  empty  bottle,  altho  glass  is  heavier  than  water.  A 
longitudinal  shaving  of  pine  will  float  longer  than  a  cross  shaving 
for  the  simple  reason  that  it  takes  longer  for  the  water  to  penetrate 
the  cells,  and  a  good  sized  white  pine  log  would  be  years  in  getting 
water-soaked  enough  to  sink.  As  long  as  a  majority  of  the  cells  are 
filled  with  air  it  would  float. 

In  any  given  piece  of  wood,  then,  the  weight  is  determined  by 
two  factors,  the  amount  of  wood  substance  and  the  amount  of  water 
contained  therein.  The  amount  of  wood  substance  is  constant,  but 
the  amount  of  water  contained  is  variable,  and  hence  the  weight  va- 
ries accordingly.  Moreover,  considering  the  wood  substance  alone, 
the  weight  of  wood  substance  of  different  kinds  of  Avood  is  about  the 
same;  namely,  1.6  times  as  heavy  as  water,  whether  it  is  oak  or  pine, 
ebony  or  poplar.  The  reason  why  a  given  bulk  of  some  woods  is 
lighter  than  an  equal  bulk  of  others,  is  because  there  are  more  thin- 
walled  and  air-filled  cells  in  the  light  woods.  Many  hard  woods,  as 
lignum  vitae,  are  so  heavy  that  they  will  not  float  at  all.  This  is 
because  the  wall  of  the  wood  cells  is  very  thick,  and  the  lumina  are 
small. 

In  order,  then,  to  find  out  the  comparative  weights  of  different 
woods,  that  is,  to  see  how  much  wood  substance  there  is  in  a  given 
volume  of  any  wood,  it  is  necessary  to  test  absolutely  dry  specimens. 

The  weight  of  wood  is  indicated  either  as  the  weight  per  cubic 
foot  or  as  specific  gravity. 

It  is  an  interesting  fact  that  different  parts  of  the  same  tree  have 
different  weights,  the  wood  at  the  base  of  the  tree  weighing  more 
than  that  higher  up,  and  the  wood  midway  between  the  pith  and  bark 
weighing  more  than  either  the:  center  or  the  outside.4 


4How   much   different   woods  vary   may   be  seen  by   the   following  table, 
taken  from  Filibert  Roth,  Timber,  Forest  Service  Bulletin  No.  10,  p.  28: 


50 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


The  weight  of  wood  has  a  very  important  bearing  upon  its  use. 
A  mallet-head,  for  example,  needs  weight  in  a  small  volume,  but  it 
must  also  be  tough  to  resist  shocks,  and  elastic  so  as  to  impart  its 
momentum  gradually  and  not  all  at  once,  as  an  iron  head  does. 

Weight  is  important,  too,  in  objects  of  wood  that  are  movable. 
The  lighter  the  wood  the  better,  if  it  is  strong  enough.  That  is  why 
spruce  is  valuable  for  ladders ;  it  is  both  light  and  strong.  Chestnut 
would  be  a  valuable  wood  for  furniture  if  it  were  not  weak,  especially 
in  the  spring  wood. 

The  weight  of  wood  is  one  measure  of  its  strength.  Heavy  wood 
is  stronger  than  light  wood  of  the  same  kind,  for  the  simple  reason 


WEIGHT   OF   KILX-DRIED    WOOD   OF    DIFFERENT    SPECIES. 


Specific 
weight. 

Weight  of 

1  cubic 
foot. 

1,000  feet 
of  lumber. 

(a)   Very  heavy  woods: 
Hickory,    oak,     persimmon,    osage 
orange,  black   locust,  hackberry, 
blue  beech,  best  of  elm,,  and  ash. 
(b)   Heavy  woods: 
Ash,    elm,    cherry^   birch,    maple, 
beech,  walnut,   sour  gum,  coffee 
tree,  honey  locust,  best  of  south- 
ern pine,  and  tamarack  

0.70-0.80 
.60-  .70 

.50-  .60 

.40-  .50 
.30-  .40 

Pounds 
42-48 

36-42 
30-36 

24-30 
18-24 

Pounds 
3,700 

3,200 
2,700 

2,200 
1,800 

(c)   Woods  of  medium  weight: 
Southern  pine,  pitch  pine,  tamar- 
ack,    Douglas     spruce,     western 
hemlock,  sweet  gum,  soft  maple, 
sycamore,     sassafras,     mulberry, 
light  grades  of  birch  and  cherry.  . 
(d)   Light  woods: 
Norway  and  bull  pine,  red  cedar, 
cypress,     hemlock,     the     heavier 
spruce    and    fir,    redwood,    bass- 
wood,  chestnut,  butternut,  tulip, 
catalpa,  buckeye,  heavier  grades 

(e)   Very  light  woods: 
White  pine,   spruce,  fir,  white   ce- 
dar, poplar    

Approximate. 


PROPERTIES   OF   WOOD.  51 

that  weight  and  strength  are  dependent  upon  the  number  and  com- 
pactness of  the  fibers.5 

THE   STRENGTH   OF   WOOD. 

Strength  is  a  factor  of  prime  importance  in  wood.  By  strength 
is  meant  the  ability  to  resist  stresses,,  either  of  tension  (pulling),  or 
of  compression  (pushing),  or  both  together,  cross  stresses.  When  a 
horizontal  timber  is  subjected  to  a  downward  cross  stress,  the  lower 
half  is  under  tension,  the  upper  half  is  under  compression  and  the 
line  between  is  called  the  neutral  axis,  Fig.  42. 


Htutral   Ax/5 


Fig.  42.     A  Timber  Under  Cross  Stress,  Showing-  Neutral  Axis,  and  the  Lines  of 

Tension  and  Compression.    A  knot  occurring  in  such  a  timber  should  be  in  the 

upper  half,  as  at  A. 

Wood  is  much  stronger  than  is  commonly  supposed.  A  hickory 
bar  will  stand  more  strain  under  tension  than  a  wrought  iron  bar 
of  the  same  length  and  weight,  and  a  block  of  long-leaf  pine  a  greater 
compression  endwise  than  a  block  of  wrought  iron  of  the  same  height 
and  weight.  It  approaches  the  strength  of  cast  iron  under  the  same 
conditions. 

Strength  depends  on  two  factors:  the  strength  of  the  individual 
fibers,  and  the  adhesive  power  of  the  fibers  to  each  other.  So,  when 
a  piece  of  wood  is  pulled  apart,  some  of  the  fibers  break  and  some  are 
pulled  out  from  among  their  neighbors.  Under  compression,  how- 
ever, the  fibers  seem  to  act  quite  independently  of  each  other,  each 
bending  over  like  the  strands  of  a  rope  when  the  ends  are  pushed 
together.  As  a  consequence,  we  find  that  wood  is  far  stronger  under 
tension  than  under  compression,  varying  from  two  to  four  times. 

5For  table  of  weights  of  different  woods  see  Sargent,  Jeswp  Collection^ 
pp.  153-157. 


52 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Woods  do  not  vary  nearly  so  much  under  compression  as  under 
tension,  the  straight-grained  conifers,  like  larch  and  longleaf  pine, 
being  nearly  as  strong  under  compression  as  the  hard  woods,  like 
hickory  and  elm,  which  have  entangled  fibers,  whereas  the  hard  woods 
are  nearly  twice  as  strong  as  the  conifers  under  tension. 

Moisture  has  more  effect  on  the  strength  of  wood  than  any  other 
extrinsic  condition.  In  sound  wood  under  ordinary  conditions,  it 
outweighs  all  other  causes  which  affect  strength.  When  thoroly  sea- 
soned, wood  is  two  or  three  times  stronger,  both  under  compression 

and    in    bending,    than    when 

/ N        green  or  water  soaked.6 

The  tension  or  pulling 
strength  of  wood  is  much  af- 
fected by  the  direction  of  the 
grain,  a  cross-grained  piece  be- 
ing only  l/10th  to  l/20th  as 
strong  as  a  straight-grained 
piece.  But  under  compression 
there  is  not  much  difference; 
so  that  if  a  timber  is  to  be 
subjected  to  cross  strain,  that 
is  the  lower  half  under  tension 
and  the  upper  half  under  com- 
pression, a  knot  or  other  cross- 
grained  portion  should  be  in  the  upper  half. 

Strength  also  includes  the  ability  to  resist  shear.  This  is  called 
"shearing  strength."  It  is  a  measure  of  the  adhesion  of  one  part  of 
the  wood  to  an  adjoining  part.  Shearing  is  what  takes  place  when 
the  portion  of  wood  beyond  a  mortise  near  the  end  of  a  timber, 
A  B  C  D,  Fig.  43,  is  forced  out  by  the  tenon.  In  this  case  it  would 
be  shearing  along  the  grain,  sometimes  called  detrusion.  The  resist- 
ance of  the  portion  A  B  C  D,  i.  e.,  its  power  of  adhesion  to  the  wood 
adjacent  to  it  on  both  sides,  is  its  shearing  strength.  If  the  mortised 
piece  were  forced  downward  until  it  broke  off  the  tenon  at  the  shoul- 
der, that  would  be  shearing  across  the  grain.  The  shearing  resistance 
either  with  or  across  the  grain  is  small  compared  with  tension  and 
compression.  Green  wood  shears  much  more  easily  than  dry,  be- 


Fig-.  43.    Shearing-  Strength  is  Measured 

by  the  Adhesion  of  the  Portion  A,  B,  C, 

D  or  to  the  Wood  on  both  sides  of  it. 


6See  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  70,  pp.  11,  12,  and  Forestry  Circular  No.  108. 


PROPERTIES   OF   WOOD.  53 

cause  moisture  softens  the  wood  and  this  reduces  the  adhesion  of  the 
fibers  to  each  other.7 

CLEAVABILITY    OF    WOOD. 

Closely  connected  with  shearing  strength  is  cohesion,  a  property 
usually  considered  under  the  name  of  its  opposite,  cleavability,  i.  e., 
the  ease  of  splitting. 

When  an  ax  is  stuck  into  the  end  of  a  piece  of  wood,  the  wood 
splits  in  advance  of  the  ax  edge.  See  Handwork  in  Wood,  Fig.  59, 
p.  52.  The  wood  is  not  cut  but  pulled  across  the  grain  just  as  truly 
as  if  one  edge  were  held  and  a  weight  were  attached  to  the  other 
edge  and  it  were  torn  apart  by  tension.  The  length  of  the  cleft 
ahead  of  the  blade  is  determined  by  the  elasticity  of  the  wood.  The 
longer  the  cleft,  the  easier  to  split.  Elasticity  helps  splitting,  and 
shearing  strength  and  hardness  hinder  it. 

A  normal  piece  of  wood  splits  easily  along  two  surf  ices,  (1)  along 
any  radial  plane,  principally  because  of  the  presence  of  the  pith  rays, 
and,  in  regular  grained  wood  like  pine,  because  the  cells  are  radially 
regular;  and  (2)  along  the  annual  rings,  because  the  spring-wood  sep- 
arates easily  from  the  next  ring  of  summer-wood.  Of  the  two,  radial 
cleavage  is  50  to  100  per  cent,  easier.  Straight-grained  wood  is  much 
easier  to  split  than  cross-grained  wood  in  which  the  fibers  are  inter- 
laced, and  soft  wood,  provided  it  is  elastic,  splits  easier  than  hard. 
Woods  with  sharp  contrast  between  spring  and  summer  wood,  like 
yellow  pine  and  chestnut,  split  very  easily  tangentially. 

All  these  facts  are  important  in  relation  to  the  u?e  of  nails.  For 
instance,  the  reason  why  yellow  pine  is  hard  to  nail  and  bass  easy 
is  because  of  their  difference  in  cleavability. 

ELASTICITY  OF  WOOD. 

Elasticity  is  the  ability  of  a  substance  when  forced  out  of  shape, — 
bent,  twisted,  compressed  or  stretched,  to  regain  its  former  shape. 
When  the  elasticity  of  wood  is  spoken  of,  its  ability  to  spring  back 
from  bending  is  usually  meant.  The  opposite  of  elasticity  is  brittle- 
ness.  Hickory  is  elastic,  white  pine  is  brittle. 


Tor  table  of  strengths  of  different  woods,  see  Sargent,  Jesup  Collection, 
pp.  166  ff. 


54  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

Stiffness  is  the  ability  to  resist  bending,  and  hence  is  the  opposite 
of  pliability  or  flexibility.  A  wood  may  be  both  stiff  and  elastic;  it 
may  be  even  stiff  and  pliable,  as  ash,  which  may  be  made  into  splints 
for  baskets  and  may  also  be  used  for  oars.  Willow  sprouts  are  flexible 
when  green,  but  quite  brittle  when  dry. 

Elasticity  is  of  great  importance  in  some  uses  of  wood,  as  in  long 
tool  handles  used  in  agricultural  implements,  such  as  rakes,  hoes, 
scythes,  and  in  axes,  in  archery  bows,  in  golf  sticks,  etc.,  in  all  of 
which,  hickory,  our  most  elastic  wood,  is  used.8 

HARDNESS    OF    WOOD. 

Hardness  is  the  ability  of  wood  to  resist  indentations,  and  de- 
pends primarily  upon  the  thickness  of  the  cell  walls  and  the  small- 
ness  of  the  cell  cavities,  or,  in  general,  upon  the  density  of  the  wood 
structure.  Summer  wood,  as  we  have  seen,  is  much  harder  than 
spring  wood,  hence  it  is  important  in  using  such  wood  as  yellow  pine 
on  floors  to  use  comb-grain  boards,  so  as  to  present  the  softer  spring 
wood  in  as  narrow  surfaces  as  possible.  See  Handwork  in  Wood, 
p.  41,  and  Fig.  55.  In  slash-grain  boards,  broad  surfaces  of  both 
spring  and  summer  wood  appear.  Maple  which  is  uniformly  hard 
makes  the  best  floors,  even  better  than  oak,  parts  of  which  are  com- 
paratively soft. 

The  hardness  of  wood  is  of  much  consequence  in  gluing  pieces  to- 
gether. Soft  woods,  like  pine,  can  be  glued  easily,  because  the  fibers 
can  be  forced  close  together.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  joint  when  dry 
is  stronger  than  the  rest  of  the  board.  In  gluing  hard  woods,  how- 
ever, it  is  necessary  to  scratch  the  surfaces  to  be  glued  in  order  to 
insure  a  strong  joint.  It  is  for  the  same  reason  that  a  joint  made 
with  liquid  glue  is  safe  on  soft  wood  when  it  would  be  weak  on 
hard  wood.9 

TOUGHNESS   OF  WOOD. 

Toughness  may  be  defined  as  the  ability  to  resist  sudden  shocks 
and  blows.  This  requires  a  combination  of  various  qualities,  strength, 
hardness,  elasticity  and  pliability.  The  tough  woods,  par  excellence, 


8For  table  of  elasticity  of  different  woods,  see  Sargent,  Jesup  Collection, 
pp.   163  ff. 

"For   table   of  hardnesses  of    different   woods,  see    Sargent,   Jesup    Collec- 
tion, pp.  173  ff. 


PROPEKTIES  OP  WOOD.  55 

are  hickory,  rock  elm  and  ash.  They  can  be  pounded,  pulled,  com- 
pressed and  sheared.  It  is  because  of  this  quality  that  hickory  is 
used  for  wheel  spokes  and  for  handles,  elm  for  hubs,  etc. 

In  the  selection  of  wood  for  particular  purposes,  it  is  sometimes 
one,  sometimes  another,  and  more  often  still,  a  combination  of  quali- 
ties that  makes  it  fit  for  use.10 

It  will  be  remembered  that  it  was  knowledge  of  the  special  values 
of  different  woods  that  made  "the  one  horse  shay/'  "The  Deacon's 
Masterpiece." 


"So  the  Deacon  inquired  of  the  village  folk 
Where  he  could  find  the  strongest  oak, 
That  couldn't  be  split  nor  bent  nor  broke, — 
That  was  for  spokes  and  floor  and  sills; 
He  sent  for  lancewood  to  make  the  thills; 
The  cross  bars  were  ash,  from  the  straightest  trees, 
The  panels  of  whitewood,  that  cuts  like  cheese, 
But  lasts  like  iron  for  things  like  these. 
The  hubs  of  logs  from  the  "Settler's  Ellum," — 
Last  of  its  timber, — they  couldn't  sell  'em. 
Never  an  ax  had  seen  their  chips, 
And  the  wedges  flew  from  between  their  lips, 
Their  blunt  ends  frizzled  like  celery  tips; 
Step  and  prop-iron,  bolt  and  screw, 
Spring,  tire,  axle  and  linch  pin  too, 
Steel  of  the  finest,  bright  and  blue; 
Thorough  brace,  bison  skin,  thick  and  wide; 
Boot,  top  dasher  from  tough  old  hide, 
Found  in  the  pit  when  the  tanner  died. 
That  was  the  way  to  "put  her  through." 
'There!'  said  the  Deacon,  'naow  she'll  dew!'" 


10For  detailed  characteristics  of  different  woods  see  Chapter  III. 


56  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


THE  PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD. 

REB^ERENCES* 

Moisture  and   Shrinkage. 

Roth,  For.  Bull.,  No.  10,  pp.  25-        Busbridge,  Sci.  Am.  Sup.  No.  1500. 
37.  Oct.   1,  '04. 

Weight,  Strength,  Cleavability,  Elasticity  and  Toughness. 

Roth,  For.  Bull.,  10,  p.  37-50.  Roth,  First  Book,   pp.   229-233. 

Boulger,  pp.  89-108,  129-140.  Sargent,   Jesup   Collection,  pp.   153- 

176. 
Forest  Circulars  Nos.  108  and  139. 


*For  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  111. 
THE  PKINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  AMEKICAN  WOODS. 

NOTES. 

The  photographs  of  tangential  and  radial  sections  are  life  size. 
The  microphotographs  are  of  cross-sections  and  are  enlarged  37^> 
diameters. 

Following  the  precedent  of  U.  S.  F'orest  Bulletin  No.  17,  Sud- 
worth's  Check  List  of  the  Forest  Trees  of  the  United  States,  the  com- 
plicated rules  for  the  capitalization  of  the  names  of  species  are  aban- 
doned and  they  are  uniformly  not  capitalized. 

On  pages  192-195  will  be  found  lists  of  the  woods  described,  ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  their  comparative  weight,  strength,  elasticity, 
and  hardness.  These  lists  are  based  upon  the  figures  in  Sargent's 
The  Jesup  Collection. 

In  the  appendix,  p.  289,  will  be  found  a  key  for  distinguishing  the 
various  kinds  of  wrood. 

Information  as  to  current  wholesale  prices  in  the  principal  mar- 
kets of  the  country  can  be  had  from  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
The  Forest  Service,  Washington,  D.  C.,  Record  of  Wholesale  Prices 
of  Lumber,  List  A.  These  lists  are  published  periodically.  No  at- 
tempt is  made  in  this  book  to  give  prices  because:  (1)  only  lists  of 
wholesale  prices  are  available;  (2)  the  cuts  and  grades  differ  consid- 
erably, especially  in  soft  woods  (conifers)  ;  (3)  prices  are  constantly 
varying;  (4)  the  prices  differ  much  in  different  localities. 


57 


58 


WOOD   AND   FOREST. 


Habitat. 


WHITE  PINE,  WEYMOUTH  PINE. 

Named  for  Lord  Weymouth,  who  cultivated  it  in  England. 

Pinus  strobus  Linnaeus. 

Pinus,  the  classical  Latin  name;    strobus   refers  to  the  cone,  or  strobile, 
from  a  Greek  word,  strobus,  meaning  twist. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
now  best  in  Michigan, 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'-120', 
even  200' ;  diameter,  2'-4' ; 
branches  in  whorls,  cleans 
poorly;  bark,  dark  gray, 
divided  by  deep  longitu- 
dinal fissures  into  broad 
ridges;  leaves  in  clusters 
of  5,  3"-5"  long;  cone 
drooping,  4"-10"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  heart-wood,  very 
light  brown,  almost  cream 
color,  sap-wood,  nearly 
white;  non-porous;  rings, 
fine  but  distinct;  grain, 
straight;  pith  rays,  very 
faint;  resin  ducts,  small, 
inconspicuous. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Weight,  very  light  (59th 
in  this  list),  27  Ibs.  per 
cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr.  0.3854; 
strength,  medium  (55th  in 
this  list;  elasticity,  me- 
dium (47th  in  this  list)  ; 
soft  (57th.  in  this  list); 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


59 


shrinkage  3  per  cent;  warps  very  little; 
durability,  moderate;  works  easily  in 
every  way;  splits  easily  but  nails  well. 

Common  Uses :    Doors,  window  sashes 


and    other    carpentry, 
cabinet-work,  matches. 


pattern-making. 


Remarks:  This  best  of  American 
woods  is  now  rapidly  becoming  scarce  and 
higher  in  price.  Its  uses  are  due  to  its 
uniform  grain,  on  account  of  which  it 
is  easily  worked  and  stands  well.  Known 
in  the  English  market  as  yellow  pine. 


Radial  Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential  Section, 
life    size. 


60  "WOOD   AND    FOREST. 

2 

WESTERN  WHITE  PINE. 

Pinus  monticola  Douglas. 

Pinus,  the  classical  Latin  name;    monticola  means  mountain-dweller. 


i  * 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
grows  at  great  elevations, 
7,000'-10,000'.  Best  in 
northern  Idaho. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100VL60'; 
diameter,  4'  to  even  8'; 
branches,  slender,  spread- 
ing; bark,  gray  and 
brown,  divided  into  squar- 
ish plates  by  deep  longi- 
tudinal and  cross  fissures; 
leaves,  5  in  sheath;  cones, 
12"xl8"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown  or  red, 
sap-wood  nearly  white ; 
non-porous ;  rings,  sum- 
mer wood,  thin  and  not 
conspicuous ;  grain, 
straight;  rays,  numerous, 
obscure;  resin  ducts,  nu- 
merous and  conspicuous 
tho  not  large. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Weight,  very  light  (58th 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


61 


in  this  list),  24  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr. 
0.3908;  strength,  medium  (56th  in  this 
list)  ;  elastic  (35th  in  this  list)  ;  soft 
(63d  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  3  per  cent; 
warps  little;  moderately  durable;  easy 
to  work;  splits  readily  but  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:     Lumber  for  construc- 
tion and  interior  finish. 

Remarks:  Closely  resembles  Pinus 
Strobus  in  appearance  and  quality  of 
wood. 


Radial   Section, 
life   size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


62 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


SUGAR  PINE. 

Sugar  refers  to  sweetish  exudation. 

Pinus  lambertiana  Douglas. 

Pinus,  the  classical  Latin  name;   lambertiana,  from  the  botanist,  A.  B. 
Lambert,  whose  chief  work  was  on  Pines. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
grows  on  high  elevations 
(5,000'),  best  in  northern 
California, 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'-300'; 
diameter,  1 5"-20" ; 
branches,  in  remote  reg- 
ular whorls;  bark,  rich 
purple  or  brown,  thick, 
deep  irregular  fissures 
making  long,  flaky  ridges ; 
leaves,  stout,  rigid,  in 
bundles  of  five;  cones, 
10"-18"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  pinkish  brown,  sap- 
wood,  cream  white;  non- 
porous  ;  rings,  distinct ; 
grain,  straight;  rays,  nu- 
merous, obscure ;  resin 
ducts,  numerous,  large 
and  conspicuous. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,   very   light    (61st 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


63 


in  this  list),  22  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr. 
0.3684;  strength,  weak  (59th  in  this 
list)  ;  elasticity,  medium  (56th  in  this 
list) ;  soft  (53d  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age, 3  per  cent;  warps  little;  durable; 
easily  worked;  splits  little,  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Carpentry,  interior 
finish,  doors,  blinds,  shingles,  barrels, 
etc. 

Remarks:  Exudes  a  sweet  substance 
from  heart-wood.  A  magnificent  and 
important  lumber  tree  on  Pacific  coast. 


Radial  Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-sectien, 
magnified   37 1/2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    cize. 


Habitat. 


64  WOOD   AND   FOREST. 

4 
NORWAY  PINE.    EED  PINE. 

Red  refers  to  color  of  bark. 

Pinus  resinosa  Solander. 
Pinus,  the  classical  Latin  name;  resinosa  refers  to  very  resinous  wood. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
grows  best  in  northern 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Minnesota. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-90'; 
diameter,  2'-3' ;  tall, 
straight ;  branches  in 
whorls,  low;  bark,  thin, 
scaly,  purplish  and  red- 
dish-brown ;  longitudinal 
furrows,  broad  flat  ridges; 
leaves,  in  twos  in  long 
sheaths;  cones,  2". 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color  of  wood,  pale  red, 
sap-wood,  wide,  whitish; 
non-porous ;  rings  sum- 
mer wood  broad,  dark; 
grain,  straight;  rays,  nu- 
merous, pronounced,  thin; 
very  resinous,  but  ducts 
small  and  few. 


Physical         Qualities : 
Leaf.  Weight,  light,  43d  in  this 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


65 


list),  31  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr.  0.4854; 
strong  (39th  in  this  list)  ;  elastic  (16th 
in  this  list)  ;  soft  (48th  in  this  list)  ; 
shrinkage,  3  per  cent;  warps  moder- 
ately ;  not  durable  ;  easy  to  work ;  splits 
readily,  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Piles,  electric  wire 
poles,  masts,  flooring. 

Remarks:  Often  sold  with  and  as 
white  pine.  Eesembles  Scotch  pine 
(Pinus  sylvestris).  Bark  used  to  some 
extent  for  tanning.  Grows  in  open 
groves. 


Radial   Section, 
life    size. 


Cross- section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential  Section, 
life    size. 


66  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

5 

WESTERN  YELLOW  PINE.    BULL  PINE. 

Bull  refers  to  great  size  of  trunk. 

Pinus  ponderosa  Lawson. 
Pinus,  the  classical  Latin  name;    ponderosa  refers  to  great  size  of  trunk. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  Rocky  Mountains. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'  to 
300';  diameter,  6'  to  even 
12';  branches,  low,  short 
trunk;  bark,  thick,  dark 
brown,  deep,  meandering 
furrows,  large,  irregular 
plates,  scaly;  leaves,  in 
twos  or  threes,  5"  to  11" 
long,  cones"  to  6"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  red,  sap-wood, 
thick,  nearly  white,  and 
very  distinct;  non-porous; 
rings,  conspicuous;  grain, 
straight;  rays,  numerous, 
obscure;  very  resinous  but 
ducts  small. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  light  (44th  in 
this  list),  25-30  Ibs.  per 
cu.  ft,  sp.  gr.  0.4715; 
strength,  medium  (45th 


SPECIES    OF    WOODS. 


67 


in  this  list) ;  elasticity,  medium  (41st  in 
this  list)  ;  hardness,  medium  (42nd  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  4  per  cent. ;  warps 

;  not  durable ;  hard  to  work, 

brittle ;  splits  easily  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:    Lumber,  railway  ties, 
mine  timbers. 


Remarks:    Forms  extensive  open  for- 


ests. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37 H    diameters. 


Tangential    Section, 
life    size. 


68  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

G 

LONG-LEAF  PINE.     GEORGIA  PINE. 
Pinus  palustris  Miller. 

Pinus,    the    classical    Latin    name;     palustris    means    swampy,    inappro- 
priate here. 


71 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map)  ; 
best  in  Louisiana  and  East 
Texas. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  80'-100'; 
diameter,  2'-3' ;  trunk, 
straight,  clean,  branches 
high;  bark,  light  brown, 
large,  thin,  irregular  pa- 
pery scales;  leaves  8"-12" 
long,  3  in  a  sheath ;  cones 
6"-10"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Heart-wood,  spring  wood 
light  yellow,  summer 
wood,  red  brown;  sap 
wood,  lighter ;  non-por- 
ous; rings,  very  plain  and 
strongly  marked ;  grain, 
straight;  rays,  numerous, 
conspicuous ;  very  resin- 
ous, but  resin  ducts  few 
and  not  large. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (18th  in  this  list), 
38  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


69 


0.6999;  very  strong  (7th  in  this  list); 
very  elastic  (4th  in  this  list)  ;  hardness, 
medium  (33d  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage, 
4  per  cent;  warps  very  little;  quite 
durable;  works  hard,  tough;  splits 
badly  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Joists,  beams,  bridge 
and  building  trusses,  interior  finish,  ship 
building,  and  general  construction  work. 

Remarks:  Almost  exclusively  the 
source  of  turpentine,  tar,  pitch  and  resin 
in  the  United  States.  Known  in  the 
English  market  as  pitch  pine. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential    Section, 
life    size. 


Habitat. 


70  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

7 

SHORT-LEAF  PINE.    YELLOW  PINE. 

Pinus  echinata  Miller. 
J'inus,  the  classical  Latin  name;    echinata,  refers  to  spiny  cones. 

Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  lower  Mississippi 
basin. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Straight,  tall  trunk, 
sometimes  100'  high ; 
branches  high ;  diameter 
2'-4';  bark,  pale  grayish 
red-brown,  fissures,  run- 
ning helter-skelter,  mak- 
ing large  irregular  plates, 
covered  with  small  scales; 
leaves  in  twos,  3"  long; 
cones  small. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color :  heartwood,  sum- 
mer wood,  red,  spring- 
wood,  yellow ;  sap-wood, 
lighter ;  non-porous ;  an- 
nual rings  very  plain, 
sharp  contrast  between 
spring  and  summer  wood; 
grain,  straight,  coarse ; 
rays,  numerous,  conspicu- 
ous; very  resinous,  duct? 
Leaf.  large  and  many. 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


71 


Physical  Qualities:  Weight,  medium 
(32nd  in  this  list),  32  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft., 
sp.  gr.,  0.6104;  very  strong  (18th  in 
this  list)  ;  very  elastic  (8th  in  this  list)  ; 
soft  (38th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  4 
percent;  warps  little;  durable;  trouble- 
some to  work;  likely  to  split  along  an- 
nual rings  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Heavy  construction, 
railroad  ties,  house  trim,  ship  building, 
cars,  docks,  bridges. 

Remarks:  Wood  hardly  distinguish- 
able from  long-leaf  pine.  Often  forms 
pure  forests.  The  most  desirable  yellow 
pine,  much  less  resinous  and  more  easily 
worked  than  others. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^2     diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


8 

LOBLOLLY  PINE.     OLD  FIELD  PINE. 

Loblolly  may  refer  to  the   inferiority  of  the  wood;     old   field   refers  to 
habit  of  spontaneous  growth  on  old  fields. 

Pinus  iaeda  Linnaeus. 

Pinus,  the   classical   Latin   name;     taeda,  the   classical   Latin   name   for 
pitch-pine,  which  was  used  for  torches. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
grows  best  in  eastern  Vir- 
ginia, and  eastern  North 
Carolina. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'-150'; 
diameter,  often  4'-5' ; 
branches  high ;  bark, 
purplish  brown,  shallow, 
meandering  fissures,  broad, 
flat,  scaly  ridges;  leaves, 
3  in  sheath,  4"-7"  long; 
cones  3"-5"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  heart-wood  orange, 
sap-wood  lighter ;  non- 
porous;  rings  very  plain, 
sharp  contrast  between 
spring  wood  and  summer 
wood ;  grain,  straight, 
coarse ;  rays  conspicuous ; 
very  resinous,  but  ducts 
few  and  small. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Weight,  medium  (39th  in 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


73 


this  list),  33  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr. 
0.5441;  strong  (26th  in  this  list)  ;  elas- 
tic (17th  in  this  list)  ;  medium  hard 
(43d  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  4  per 
cent;  warps  little;  not  durable;  diffi- 
cult to  work,  brittle;  splits  along  rings 
in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Heavy  construction, 
beams,  ship  building,  docks,  bridges, 
flooring,  house  trim. 

Remarks:  Eesembles  Long-leaf  Pine, 
and  often  sold  as  such.  Rarely  makes 
pure  forests. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross- section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


74  AVOOD  AND  FOREST. 

9 

SLASH  PINE.     CUBAN  PINE. 
Pinus  caribaea  Morelet.      Pinus  heterophylla  (Ell.)   Sudworth. 

Pinus,   the  classical   Latin   name;     caribaea,  refers  to  the   Caribbean   Is- 
lands;   heterophylla  refers  to  two  kinds  of  leaves. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 

grows    best  in    Alabama, 

Mississippi,  and  Louisi- 
ana, 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  sometimes 
110',  straight,  tall,  branch- 
ing high;  diameter  l'-3'; 
bark,  dark  red  and  brown, 
shallow  irregular  fissures; 
leaves,  2  or  3  in  a  sheath, 
8" -12"  long;  cones,  4"-5" 
long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  dark  orange,  sap- 
wood  lighter ;  non-por- 
ous; annual  rings,  plain, 
sharp  contrast  between 
spring  wood  and  summer 
wood ;  grain,  straight ; 
rays  numerous,  rather 
prominent;  very  resinous, 
but  ducts  few. 

Physical  dualities : 
Heavy  (7th  in  this  list), 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


75 


39  Ibs.  per  en.  ft.,  sp.  gr.  0.7504;  very 
strong  (6th  in  this  list)  ;  very  elastic 
(3d  in  this  list)  ;  hard  (24th  in  this 
list);  shrinkage,  4  per  cent;  warps  lit- 
tle ;  quite  durable ;  troublesome  to  work ; 
splits  along  annual  rings  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Heavy  construction, 
ship  building,  railroad  ties,  docks, 
bridges,  house  trim. 

Remarks:  Similar  to  and  often  sold 
as  Long-leaf  Pine. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


76  \VOOD  AND  FOREST. 

10 

TAMARACK.    LARCH.    HACKMATACK. 

Larix  laricina  (Du  Eoi)  Koch.     Larix  americana  Michaux. 
Larix,  the  classical  Latin  name. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
prefers  swamps,  "Tama- 
rack swamps." 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  50'-60' 
and  even  90',  diameter  1'- 
3';  intolerant;  tall,  slen- 
der trunk;  bark,  cinna- 
mon brown,  no  ridges, 
breaking  into  flakes ; 
leaves,  deciduous,  pea- 
green,  in  tufts;  cone,  J^"- 
34",  bright  brown. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  hardly  distinguish- 
able ;  non-porous ;  rings, 
summer  wood,  thin  but 
distinct,  dark  colored ; 
grain,  straight,  coarse ; 
rays,  numerous,  hardly 
distinguishable;  very  res- 
inous, but  ducts  few  and 
small. 

Physical         dualities : 
Weight,  medium   (29th  in 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


77 


this  list),  39  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr. 
0.6236;  strong  (24th  in  this  list)  ;  elas- 
tic (llth  in  this  list);  medium  hard 
(40th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  3  per 

cent ;    warps    ;    very  durable ; 

easy  to  work;    splits  easily. 

Common  Uses:  Ship  building,  elec- 
tric wire  poles,  and  railroad  ties;  used 
for  boat  ribs  because  of  its  naturally 
crooked  knees ;  slenderness  prevents  com- 
mon use  as  lumber. 

Remarks:  Tree  desolate  looking  in 
winter. 


Radial    Sectio. 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    Z7l/2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


78  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

11 

WESTERN  LARCH.    TAMARACK. 

Larix  occidentalis  Nuttall. 
Larix,  the  classical  L/atin  name;  occidentalis  means  western. 

Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  northern  Montana 
and  Idaho,  on  high  eleva- 
tions. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  90'-130', 
even  250';  diameter  6'-8'; 

Habitat.  tall,  slender,  naked  trunk, 

with  branches  high;  bark, 
cinnamon  red  or  purplish, 
often  12"  thick,  breaking 
into  irregular  plates,  often 
2'  long;  leaves,  in  tufts; 
deciduous;  cones  small. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 
Color,  light  red,  thin, 
whitish,  sap-wood ;  non- 
porous  ;  grain,  straight, 
fine ;  rays  numerous,  thin  ; 
very  resinous,  but  ducts 
small  and  obscure. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,    heavy    (llth    in 
this  list),  46  Ibs.  per  cu. 
Leaf.  ft.,   sp.   gr.    0.7407;     very 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


79 


strong  (3d  in  this  list)  ;  very  elastic 
(1st  in  this  list);  medium  hard  (35th 
in  this  list);  shrinkage,  4  per  cent; 

warps ;  very  durable ;  rather 

hard  to  work,  takes  fine  polish;  splits 
with  difficulty. 

Common  Uses:     Posts,  railroad  ties, 
fencing,  cabinet  material  and  fuel. 

Remarks:      A   valuable   tree   in   the 
Northwest. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential    Section, 
life    size. 


80 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


12 

WHITE  SPRUCE. 
Picca  canadensis  (Miller)  B.  S.  P.    Picca  alba  Link. 

Picea,  the  classical  Latin  name ;  white  and  alba  refers  to  the  p 
of  the  leaves,  especially  when  young,  and  to  the  whitish  bark. 


le  color 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:     (See  map)  . 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  60'-100' 
and  even  150';  diameter, 
l'-2'  and  even  4';  long, 
thick  branches ;  bark, 
light  grayish  brown,  sep- 
arating into  thin  plate-like 
scales,  rather  smooth  ap- 
pearance, resin  from  cuts 
forms  white  -gum ;  leaves, 
set  thickly  on  all  sides  of 
branch,  finer  than  red 
spruce,  odor  disagreeable; 
cones,  2"  long,  cylindrical, 
slender,  fall  during  sec- 
ond summer. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,,  light  yellow,  sap- 
wood,  hardly  distinguish- 
able ;  non-porous ;  rings, 
wide,  summer  wood  thin, 
not  conspicuous ;  grain, 
straight;  rays,  numerous, 
prominent;  resin  ducts , 
few  and  minute. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


81 


Physical  Qualities:  Weight,  light 
(51st  in  this  list)  ;  25  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp. 
gr.,  0.4051 ;  medium  strong  (42d  in  this 
list)  ;  elastic  (29th  in  this  list)  ;  soft 
(58th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinks  3  per  cent; 

warps ;  fairly  durable ;  easy  to 

work,  satiny  surface;  splits  readily. 

Common  Uses:  Lumber  and  paper 
pulp;  (not  distinguished  from  Red  and 
Black  Spruce  in  market). 

Remarks :  Wood  very  resonant,  hence 
used  for  sounding  boards.  The  most  im- 
portant lumber  tree  of  the  sub-arctic 
forest  of  British  Columbia. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    ZT1A    diameters. 


Tangential    Sectiot 
life    size. 


82 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


13 

RED  SPRUCE.* 
Picea  rubens  Sargent. 

Picea,  the  classical  Latin  name  for  the  pitch  pine;    rubens  refers  to  red- 
dish bark,  and  perhaps  to  the  reddish  streaks  in  the  wood. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
stunted  in  north. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  70'-SO', 
even  100';  diameter,  2'-3', 
grows  slowly ;  trunk, 
straight,  columnar, 
branches  in  whorls,  cleans 
well  in  forest;  bark,  red- 
dish brown  with  thin  ir- 
regular scales ;  leaves, 
needle-shaped,  four-sided, 
pointing  everywhere ; 
cones,  lj4"-2"  long,  pen- 
dent, fall  during  the  first 
winter. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  dull  white  with  oc- 
casional reddish  streaks ; 
sap-wood  not  distinct ; 
non-porous ;  rings,  sum- 
mer rings  thin,  but  clearly 
defined ;  grain,  straight ; 
rays,  faintly  discernible ; 
resin  ducts,  few  and  small. 


*No;  distinguished  in  the  Jesup  collection  from  Picea  nigra. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


83 


Physical  Qualities:  Weight,  light 
(47th  in  this  list)  ;  28  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft., 
sp.  gr.,  0.4584;  medium  strong  (41st  in 
this  list)  ;  elastic  (21st  in  this  list)  ; 
soft  (54th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  3 
per  cent ;  warps  little ;  not  durable ;  easy 
to  plane,  tolerably  easy  to  saw,  hard  to 
chisel  neatly;  splits  easily  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Sounding  boards, 
construction.,  paper  pulp,  ladders. 

Remarks:  The  exudations  from  this 
species  are  used  as  chewing  gum.  Bark 
of  twigs  is  used  in  the  domestic  manu- 
facture of  beer.  The  use  of  the  wood  for 
sounding  boards  is  due  to  its  resonance, 
and  for  ladders  to  its  strength  and 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^2     diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


84 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


14 

BLACK  SPRUCE.* 
Picea  mariana  (Miller)  B.  S.  P.    Picea  nigra  Link. 

Picea,  the  classical  Latin  name  for  the  pitch  pine;    mariana  named  for 
Queen  Mary;    black  and  nigra  refer  to  dark  foliage. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map)  ; 
best  in  Canada. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  50'-80' 
and  even  100';  diameter, 
6"-!'  even  2';  branches, 
whorled,  pendulous  with 
upward  curve ;  bark, 
gray,  loosely  attached 
flakes;  leaves,  pale  blue- 
green,  spirally  set,  point- 
ing in  all  directions; 
cones,  small,  ovate-ob- 
long, persistent  for  many 
years. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  pale,  reddish,  sap- 
wood,  thin,  white,  not 
very  distinct ;  non-por- 
ous; rings,  summer  wood, 
small  thin  cells;  grain, 
straight;  rays,  few,  con- 
spicuous; resin  ducts,  few 
and  minute. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Weight,  light  (47th  in 


*Not  distinguished  in  Jesup  Collection  from  Picea  rubens. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


85 


this  list),  33  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr., 
0.4584;  medium  strong  (41st  in  this 
list) ;  elastic  (21st  in  this  list)  ;  soft 
(54th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  3  per 
cent;  warps  little;  not  durable;  easy 
to  work;  splits  easily  in  nailing. 

Common    Uses:      Sounding    board?, 
lumber  in  Manitoba. 

Remarks:     Not    distinguished    from 
Red  Spruce  commercially. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37 H    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


86  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

15 

WHITE  SPRUCE.    ENGEI/MANN'S  SPRUCE. 
Picea  engelmanni  (Parry)  Engelmann. 
Named  for  George  Engelmann,  an  American  botanist 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
grows  at  very  high  eleva- 
tions, forming  forest  at 
8,000'-10,000';  best  in 
British  Columbia. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  75'-100', 
even  150';  diameter,  2'-3', 
even  5';  branches  whorled, 
spreading ;  bark,  deeply 
furrowed,  red-brown  to 
purplish  brown,  thin, 
large,  loose  scales;  leaves, 
blue-green,  point  in  all 
directions ;  cones,  2" 
long,  oblong,  cylindrical. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 
Color,  pale  yellow  or  red- 
dish, sap-wood  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable ;  non-porous ; 
rings,  very  fine,  summer 
wood,  narrow,  not  con- 
spicuous; grain,  straight, 
close ;  rays,  numerous, 
conspicuous ;  resin  ducts, 
small  and  few. 


SPECIES  OF   WOODS. 


87 


Physical  Qualities:  Weight,  very 
light  (57th  in  this  list)  ;  22  Ibs.  per 
cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr.  0.3449;  weak  (61st  in 
this  list)  ;  elasticity  medium  (55th  in 
this  list);  soft  (56th  in  this  list); 

shrinkage,  3  per  cent. ;  warps ; 

durable;    easy  to  work;    splits  easily. 

Common  Uses:     Lumber. 

Remarks:  A  valuable  lumber  tree 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Cas- 
cades. Bark  used  for  tanning. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


88  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

16 

TlDELAND  SPRUCE.      SlTKA   SPRUCE. 

Picea  sitchensis  (Bongard)   Carriere. 

Picea,  the  classical  Latin  name  for  the  pitch  pine.     Tideland  refers  to 
its  habit  of  growth  along  the  sea  coast;    sitchensis,  named  for  Sitka. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  on  Pacific  slope  of 
British  Columbia  and 
northwestern  United 
States. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'-150' 
and  even  200'  high;  di- 
ameter 3'-4'  and  even  15'; 
trunk  base  enlarged  ;  bark, 
thick,  red-brown,  scaly ; 
leaves,  standing  out  in 
all  directions ;  cones, 
2>^"-4"  long,  pendent, 
cylindrical,  oval. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  whitish ;  non-por- 
ous; rings,  wide,  sum- 
mer wood,  thin  but  very 
distinct,  spring  wood,  not 
plain ;  grain,  straight, 
coarse ;  rays,  numerous, 
rather  prominent ;  resin 
ducts,  few  and  small. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


89 


Physical  Qualities:  Weight,  light 
(52d  in  this  list)  ;  27  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft., 
sp.  gr.  0.4287;  medium  strong  (53d  in 
this  list)  ;  elastic  (31st  in  this  list)  ; 
soft  (59th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  3 

per  cent. ;    warps ;  durable; 

easy  to  work;    splits  easily. 

Common  Uses:  Interior  finish,  boat 
building  and  cooperage. 

Remarks:  Largest  of  the  spruces. 
Common  in  the  coast  belt  forest. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


90 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


HEMLOCK. 

Tsuga  canadensis  (Linnaeus)  Carriere. 
Tsuga,  the  Japanese  name  latinized;    canadensis  named  for  Canada. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  North  Carolina 
and  Tennessee. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  60'-70', 
sometimes  100';  diameter, 
2'-3' ;  branches,  persist- 
ent, making  trunk  not 
very  clean ;  bark,  red-gray, 
narrow,  rounded  ridges, 
deeply  and  irregularly 
fissured ;  leaves,  spirally 
arranged,  but  appear  two- 
ranked;  cones,  34"  l°ng> 
graceful. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  reddish  brown,  sap- 
wood  just  distinguishable; 
non-porous;  rings,  rather 
broad,  conspicuous;  grain, 
crooked;  rays,  numerous, 
thin ;  non-resinous. 

Physical  Qualities: 
Weight,  light  (53d  in 
this  list)  ;  26  Ibs.  per  cu. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


91 


ft.,  sp.  gr.  0.4239 ;  medium  strong  (44th 
in  this  list)  ;  elasticity,  medium  (40th 
in  this  list);  soft  (51st  in  this  list); 
shrinkage,  3  per  cent;  warps  and  checks 
badly;  not  durable;  difficult  to  work, 
splintery,  brittle;  splits  easily,  holds 
nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Coarse,  cheap  lum- 
ber, as  joists,  rafters,  plank  walks  and 
laths. 

Remarks:  The  poorest  lumber.  Bark 
chief  source  of  tanning  material. 


Radial    Section, 
life    siie. 


Cross- section, 
magnified    37^2    diameters. 


Taneential    Section, 
life   size. 


92 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


18 

WESTERN  HEMLOCK.    BLACK  HEMLOCK. 
Tsuga  heterophylla  (Rafinesque)    Sargent. 

Tsuga,  the  Japanese  name  latinized;     heterophylla  refers  to  two  kinds 
of  leaves. 

Habitat:  (See  map)  ; 
best  on  coast  of  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  150'-200'; 
diameter,  6'-10';  branches, 
pendent,  slender ;  bark, 
reddish  gray,  deep,  longi- 
tudinal fissures  between, 
broad,  oblique,  flat  ridges; 
leaves,  dark  green,  two- 
ranked;  cones,  small,  like 
Eastern  Hemlock. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  pale  brown,  sap- 
wood  thin,  whitish;  non- 
porous  ;  rings,  narrow, 
summer  wood  thin  but 
distinct ;  grain,  straight, 
close ;  rays,  numerous, 
prominent ;  non-resinous. 

Physical  dualities : 
Light  in  weight,  strong, 
elastic,  hard;*  shrinkage, 


Leaf. 


*Not  in  Jesup  Collection. 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


93 


3  per  cent. ;  warps ;  durable, 

more  so  than  other  American  hemlocks; 
easier  to  work  than  eastern  variety; 
splits  badly. 

Common  Uses:     Lumber  for  construc- 
tion. 

Kemarks:     Coming  to  be   recognized 
as  a  valuable  lumber  tree. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross- section, 
magnified    37l/2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


94 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


19 

DOUGLAS  SPRUCE.     OREGON  PINE.    EED  FIR.    DOUGLAS  FIR. 

Pseudotsuga  mucronata  (Rafmesque)   Sudworth. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia  (Lambert)  Britton. 

Pseudotsuga   means   false   hemlock;     mucronata   refers   to    abrupt   short 
point  of  leaf;    taxifolia  means  yew  leaf. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  Puget  Sound  re- 
gion. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  175'-300'; 
diameter,  3'-5',  sometimes 
10';  branches  high,  leav- 
ing clean  trunk;  bark, 
rough,  gray,  great  broad- 
rounded  ridges,  often  ap- 
pears braided ;  leaves,  radi- 
ating from  stem;  cones, 
2"-4"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  red  to  yellow, 
sap-wood  white;  non-por- 
ous; rings,  dark  colored, 
conspicuous,  very  pro- 
nounced summer  wood ; 
grain,  straight,  coarse ; 
rays,  numerous,  obscure ; 
resinous. 


Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  medium   (41st  in 
this  list)  ;    32  Ibs.  per  cu. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES  OP   WOODS. 


95 


ft.,  sp.  gr.  0.5157;  strong  (21st  in  this 
list)  ;  very  elastic  (10th  in  this  list)  ; 
medium  hard  (45th  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age, 3  per  cent,  or  4  per  cent. ;  warps 

;  durable ;  difficult  to  work, 

flinty,  splits  readily. 

Common  Uses:  Heavy  construction, 
masts,  flag  poles,  piles,  railway  ties. 

Remarks:  One  of  the  greatest  and 
the  most  valuable  of  the  western  timber 
trees.  Forms  extensive  forests. 


Radial    Section, 
Hfe    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

20 

GRAND  FIR.    WHITE  FIR.    LOWLAND  FIR.     SILVER  FIR. 

Abies  grandis  Lindley. 
Abies,  the  classical  Latin  name. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  Puget  Sound  re- 
gion. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  in  interior 
100';  diameter,  2';  on 
coast,  250'-300'  high;  di- 
ameter, 2'-5';  long  pend- 
ulous branches ;  bark, 
quite  gray  or  gray  brown, 
shallow  fissures,  flat 
ridges ;  leaves,  shiny 
green  above,  silvery  be- 
low, l^"-2"  long,  roughly 
two-ranked;  cones,  cylin- 
drical, 2"-4"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  lighter ;  non-porous ; 
rings,  summer  cells 
broader  than  in  other 
American  species,  dark 
colored,  conspicuous ;  grain 
straight,  coarse;  rays,  nu- 
merous, obscure;  resinous. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


97 


Physical  Qualities:  Very  light  (62d 
in  this  list)  ;  22  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr., 
0.3545;  weak  (62d  in  this  list);  elas- 
tic (34th  in  this  list)  ;  soft  (65th  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  3  per  cent ;  warps 
little;  not  durable;  works  easily;  splits 
readily. 

Common  Uses:  Lumber  and  packing 
cases. 

Remarks:  No  resin  ducts.  Not  a 
verv  valuable  wood. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life   size. 


96 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


21 

BIG  TREE.     SEQUOIA.     GIANT  SEQUOIA. 

Sequoia   washing 'oniana    (Winslow)    Sudworth.     Sequoia  gigantea, 

Decaisne-. 

Sequoia  latinized  from  Sequoiah,  a  Cherokee  Indian;  ivashingtoniana,  in 
honor  of  George  Washington. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
in  ten  groves  in  southern 
California,  at  high  eleva- 
tion. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  275', 
sometimes  320' ;  diame- 
ter, 20',  sometimes  35'; 
trunk,  swollen  and  often 
buttressed  at  base,  ridged, 
often  clear  for  150';  thick 
horizontal  branches;  bark, 
l'-2'  thick,  in  great  ridges, 
separates  into  loose, 
fibrous,  cinnamon  red 
scales,  almost  non-com- 
bustible ;  leaves,  very 
small,  growing  close  to 
stem;  cones,  2"-3"  long. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 
Color,  red,  turning  dark 
on  exposure,  sap-wood 
thin,  whitish ;  non-por- 
ous; rings,  very  plain; 
grain  straight,  coarse ; 
rays,  numerous,  thin ; 
non-resinous. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


99 


Physical  Qualities:  Light  (65th  in 
this  list);  18  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft;  sp.  gr., 
0.2882;  weak  (63d  in  this  list);  brit- 
tle (62d  in  this  list)  ;  very  soft  (61st 
in  this  list);  shrinks  little;  warps  lit- 
tle; remarkably  durable;  easy  to  work, 
splits  readily,  takes  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Construction,  lum- 
ber, coffins,  shingles. 

Remarks:  Dimensions  and  age  are 
unequalled;  Big  Tree  and  Redwood 
survivors  of  a  prehistoric  genus,  once 
widely  distributed.  Some  specimens 
3600  years  old. 


Radial    b^ction, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37 H    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


100 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


22 

KEDWOOD.     COAST  EEDWOOD.     SEQUOIA. 
Sequoia  sempervirens  (Lambert)  Endlicher. 

Sequoia,    latinized    from    Sequoiah,    a    Cherokee    Indian;     sempervirens 
means  ever  living. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  southern  Oregon 
and  northern  California, 
near  coast. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  200'-340'; 
diameter,  10'- 15',  rarely 
25';  clean  trunk,  much 
buttressed  and  swollen  at 
base,  somewhat  fluted, 
branches  very  high;  bark, 
very  thick,  6"«-12",  round- 
ed ridges,  dark  scales 
falling  reveal  inner  red 
bark;  leaves,  small,  two- 
ranked;  cones,  small,  1" 
long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  red,  turning  to 
brown  on  seasoning,  sap- 
wood  whitish ;  non-por- 
ous ;  rings,  distinct ; 
grain,  straight;  rays,  nu- 
merous, very  obscure ;  non- 
resinous. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


101 


Physical  Qualities:  Light  in  weight 
(55th  in  this  list)  ;  26  Ibs.  per  en.  ft., 
sp.  gr.  0.4208;  weak  (58th  in  this  list)  ; 
brittle  (60th  in  this  list)  ;  soft  (55th 
m  this  list);  shrinks  little;  warps  lit- 
tle; very  durable;  easily  worked;  splits 
readily;  takes  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Shingles,  construc- 
tion, timber,  fence  posts,  coffins,  rail- 
way ties,  water  pipes,  curly  specimens 
used  in  cabinet  work. 

"Remarks:  Low  branches  rare.  Burns 
with  difficulty.  Chief  construction  wood 
of  Pacific  Coast.  Use  determined 
largely  by  durability. 


Radial    Section, 
life   size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


102 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


23 

BALD  CYPRESS. 

Bald  refers  to  leaflessness  of  tree  in  winter. 

Taxodium  distichum  (Linnaeus)  L.  C.  Richard. 
Taxodium  means  yew-like;    distichum  refers  to  the  two-ranked  leaves. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  South  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  States. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  75',  oc- 
casionally 150';  diame- 
ter, 4'-5';  roots  project 
upward  into  peculiar 
knees ;  trunk  strongly 
buttressed  at  base, 
straight,  majestic  and 
tapering;  bark,  light  red, 
shallow  fissures,  flat 
plates^  peeling  into 
fibrous  strips ;  leaves, 
long,  thin,  two-ranked, 
deciduous ;  cones,  nearly 
globular,  1"  in  diameter. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 
Color,  heart-wood,  red- 
dish brown,  sap-wood, 
nearly  white ;  non-por- 
ous; rings,  fine  and  well 
marked ;  grain,  nearly 
straight,  burl  is  beauti- 
fully figured;  rays,  very 


Leaf. 


obscure ;   non-resinous. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


103 


Physical  Qualities:  Light  in  weight 
(48th  in  this  list)  ;  29  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft., 
sp.  gr.  0.4543;  medium  strong  (48th  in 
this  list)  ;  elastic  (28th  in  this  list)  ; 
soft  (52d  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  3 
per  cent. ;  warps  but  little,  likely  to 
check;  very  durable;  easy  to  work,  in 
splitting,,  crumbles  or  breaks;  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Shingles,  posts,  in- 
terior finish,  cooperage,  railroad  ties, 
boats,  and  various  construction  work, 
especially  conservatories. 

Remarks :  Forms  forests  in  swamps ; 
subject  to  a  fungous  disease,  making 
wood  "peggy"  or  "pecky";  use  largely 
determined  by  its  durability.  In  New 
Orleans  90,000  fresh  water  cisterns  are 
said  to  be  made  of  it. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37 H    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


104 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


24 

WESTERN  EED  CEDAR.      CANOE  CEDAR.     GIANT  ARBORVITAE. 
Thuja  plicata  D.  Don.    Thuya  gigantea  Nuttall. 

Thuya  or  Thuja,  the  classical  Greek  name;    plicata  refers  to  the  folded 
leaves;    gigantea  refers  to  the  gigantic  size  of  the  tree. 


Habitat:    (See map); 

best  in  Puget  Sound  re 
gion. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'-200'> 
diameter,  2'-10',  even  15' ; 
trunk  has  immense  but- 
tresses, often  16'  in  di- 
ameter, then  tapers  \ 
branches,  horizontal } 

short,  making  a  dense 
conical  tree;  bark,  bright 
cinnamon  red,  shallow 
fissures,  broad  ridges, 
peeling  into  long,  nar- 
row, stringy  scales  •, 
leaves,  very  small,  over- 
lapping in  4  ranks,  on 
older  twigs,  sharper  and 
more  remote;  cones,  ^" 
long,  small,  erect. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 

Color,  dull  brown  or  red. 
thin  sap-wood  nearly 
white ;  non-porous ;  rings, 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


105 


summer  bands  thin,  dark  colored,  dis- 
tinct; grain,  straight,  rather  coarse; 
rays,  numerous,  obscure;  non-resinous. 

Physical  Qualities:  Very  light  in 
weight  (60th  in  this  list)  ;  medium 
strong  (40th  in  this  list)  ;  elastic  (26th 
in  this  list);  soft  (60th  in  this  list); 
shrinkage,  3  per  cent. ;  warps  and  checks 
little;  very  durable;  easy  to  work;  splits 
easily. 

Common  Uses:  Interior  finish,  cabi- 
net making,  cooperage,  shingles,  electric 
wire  poles. 

Remarks:  Wood  used  by  Indians 
for  war  canoes,  totems  and  planks  for 
lodges;  inner  bark  used  for  ropes  and 
textiles. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential  Section, 
life    size. 


Habitat. 


106  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

25 

WHITE  CEDAR. 

Chamaecyparis  thyoides  (Linnaeus)  B.  S.  P. 

Chamaecyparis  means   low   cypress;     thyoides   means   like   thuya    (A&or- 
vitae). 

Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree  :  Height,  60'-80'  ; 
diameter,  2'-4';  branches, 
low,  often  forming  im- 
penetrable thickets;  bark, 
light  reddish  brown, 
many  fine  longitudinal 
fissures,  often  spirally 
twisted  around  stem  ; 
leaves,  scale-like,  four- 
ranked  ;  cones,  globular, 
Y^"  diameter. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 

Color,  pink  to  brown, 
sap-wood  lighter  ;  non- 
porous;  rings,  sharp  and 
distinct;  grain,  straight; 
rays,  numerous,  obscure; 
non-resinous. 

Physical       Qualities  : 

Very  light  in  weight 
(64th  in.  this  list);  2?> 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


107 


Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr.  0.3322)  ;  weak 
(64th  in  this  list)  ;  brittle  (63d  in  this 
list;  soft  (62d  in  this  list);  shrinkage 
3  per  cent. ;  warps  little ;  extremely  dur- 
able; easily  worked;  splits  easily;  nails 
well. 

Common  Uses :  Boats,  shingles,  posts, 
railway  ties,  cooperage. 

Remarks:  Grows  chiefly  in  swamps, 
often  in  dense  pure  forests.  Uses  deter- 
mined largely  by  its  durability. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


108  WOOD  AND  FOREST, 

26 

LAWSON  CYPRESS.    PORT  ORFORD  CEDAR.    OREGON  CEDAR. 
WHITE  CEDAR. 

Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana  (A.  Murray)  Parlatore. 
Chamaecyparis  means  low  cypress. 


"F"-- ToJ 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  on  coast  of  Oregon. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'-200'; 
diameter,  4'-8'j  even  12'; 
base  of  trunk  abruptly 
enlarged ;  bark,  very 
thick,  even  10"  at  base 
of  trunk,  inner  and  outer 
layers  distinct,  very  deep 
fissures,  rounded  ridges; 
leaves,  very  small,  1/16" 
long,  four-ranked,  over- 
lapped, flat  sprays ;  cones, 
small,  J4",  globular. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 
Color,  pinkish  brown, 
sap-wood  hardly  distin- 
guishable ;  non-porous ; 
rings.,  summer  wood  thin, 
not  conspicuous ;  grain, 
straight,  close;  rays,  nu- 
merous, very  obscure ; 
non-resinous. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Light  in  weight  (46th  in 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


109 


this  list)  ;  28  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  pp.  gr. 
0.4621;  strong  (25th  in  this  list)  ;  elas- 
tic (12th  in  this  list);  soft  (50th  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage  3  or  4  per  cent. ; 
warps  little;  durable;  easily  worked; 
splits  easily. 

Common  Uses:  Matches  (almost  ex- 
clusively on  the  Pacific  Coast),  interior 
finish,  ship  and  boat  building. 

Remarks:  Resin,  a  powerful  diuretic 
and  insecticide. 


Radial    Section, 
life   size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


Habitat. 


110  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

27 

RED  CEDAR. 
Juniperus  virginiana  Linnaeus. 

Juniperus,  the  classical  Latin  name;    virginiana,  in  honor  of  the  State 
of  Virginia. 

Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  Gulf  States  in 
swamps,  especially  on  the 
west  coast  of  Florida. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  40'-50', 
even  80' ;  diameter,  l'-2' ; 
trunk,  ridged,  sometimes 
expanded ;  branches,  low ; 
bark,  light  brown,,  loose, 
ragged,  separating  into 
long,  narrow,  persistent, 
stringy  scales;  leaves,  op- 
posite, of  two  kinds,  awl- 
shaped,  and  scale-shaped ; 
fruit,  dark  blue  berry. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 

Color,  dull  red,  sap-wood 
white ;  non-porous ;  rings, 
easily  distinguished ; 
grain,  straight;  rays,  nu- 
merous, very  obscure ; 
non-resinous. 

Physical       Qualities : 
Leaf.  Very     light     in     weight 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


Ill 


(42d  in  this  list)  ;  30  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft., 
sp.  gr.  0.4826;  medium  strong  (43d  in 
this  list)  ;  brittle  (61st  in  this  list)  ; 
medium  hard  (34th  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age, 3  per  cent.;  warps  little;  very  dur- 
able; easy  to  work;  splits  readily,  takes 
nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Pencils,  chests,  cigar 
boxes,  pails,  interior  finish. 

Remarks:  Fragrant.  Pencils  are 
made  almost  exclusively  of  this  wood, 
because  it  is  light,  strong,  stiff,  straight 
and  fine-grained  and  easily  whittled ; 
supply  being  rapidly  depleted. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 

magnified   37 y2    diameters. 


Tangential    Section, 
life    size. 


112 


Habitat. 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 
28 

BLACK  WILLOW. 
Salix  nigra  Marshall. 


Salix,  from  two  Celtic  words  meaning  near-water;     nigra  refers  to  the 
dark  bark. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
grows  largest  in  southern 
Illinois,  Indiana  and 
Texas,  on  moist  banks. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  30'-40', 
sometimes  120' ;  diame- 
ter, l'-2',  rarely  3'-4'; 
stout,  upright,  spreading 
branches,  from  common 
base;  bark,  rough  and 
dark  brown  or  black,  of- 
ten tinged  with  yellow  or 
brown ;  leaves,  lanceo- 
late, often  scythe-shaped, 
serrate  edges;  fruit,  a 
capsule  containing  small, 
hairy  seeds. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 

Color,  light  reddish 
brown,  sap-wood,  thin, 
whitish ;  diffuse-porous ; 
rings,  obscure ;  grain, 
close  and  weak;  rays, 
obscure. 


I 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


113 


Physical  Qualities:  Light  in  weight 
(51st  in  this  list)  ;  27.77  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft., 
sp.  gr.  0.4456;  weak  (65th  in  this  list)  ; 
very  brittle  (64th  in  this  list)  ;  soft 
(46th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinks  consider- 
ably ;  warps  and  checks  badly ;  soft,  weak, 
indents  without  breaking;  splits  easily. 

Common  Uses:  Lap-boards,  baskets, 
water  wheels,  fuel  and  charcoal  for  gun- 
powder. 

Remarks:  Its  characteristic  of  in- 
denting without  breaking  has  given  it 
use  as  lining  for  carts  and  as  cricket 
bats.  Of  the  many  willows,  the  most 
tree  like  in  proportion  in  eastern  Nortli 
America.  Bark  contains  salvcvlic  acid. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


langential    Section, 
life    size. 


114  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

29 

BUTTERNUT.    WHITE  WALNUT. 

Butternut,  because  the  nuts  are  rich  in  oil. 

Juglans  cinerea  Linnaeus. 
Juglans  means  Jove's  nut;    cinerea  refers  to  ash-colored  bark. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:    (See  map) ; 
best  in  Ohio  basin. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  75'-100': 
diameter,  2'-4';  branches 
low,  broad  spreading 
deep  roots;  bark,  gray 
ish  brown,  deep  fissures, 
broad  ridges ;  leaves. 
15"-30"  long,  compound. 
11  to  17  leaflets,  hairj 
and  rough;  fruit,  ob 
long,  pointed,  edible,  oilj 
nut. 

Appearance  of  Wood; 

Color,  light  brown,  dark- 
ening with  exposure,  sap 
wood  whitish ;  diffuse 
porous;  rings,  not  prom 
inent ;  grain,  f  airl} 
straight,  coarse,  takes 
high  polish;  rays,  dis 
tinct,  thin,  obscure. 

Physical       Qualities ; 

Light  in  weight  (56th  in 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


115 


this  list),  25  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr. 
0.4086;  weak  (57th  in  this  list);  elas- 
ticity, medium  (52d  in  this  list)  ;  soft 

(47th  in  this  list)  ;    shrinkage   

per  cent.;  warps  little;  durable;  easy 
to  work;  splits  easily. 

Common  Uses:     Cabinet  work,  inside 
trim. 

Kemarks :     Green  husks  of  fruit  give 
yellow  dye.     Sugar  made  from  sap. 


Radial    Section, 
life   size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37 %    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


116  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

30 

BLACK  WALNUT. 
Juglans  nigra  Linnaeus. 
Juglans  means  Jove's  nut;    nigra  refers  to  the  dark  wood. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  western  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  90'-120', 
even  150';  diameter,  3' 
to  even  8';  clean  of 
branches  for  50'  to  60'; 
bark,  brownish,  almost 
black,  deep  fissures,  and 
broad,  rounded  ridges ; 
leaves,  l'-2'  long,  com- 
pound pinnate,  15  to  23 
leaflets,  fall  early;  fruit, 
nut,  with  adherent  husk, 
and  edible  kernel. 

Appearance  of  Wood : 

Color,  chocolate  brown, 
sap-wood  much  lighter ; 
diffuse-porous ;  rings, 
marked  by  slightly  larger 
pores;  grain,  straight; 
rays,  numerous,  thin,  not 
conspicuous. 

Physical       dualities : 

Weight,    medium     (31st 


SPECIES  OF   WOODS. 


117 


in  this  list)  ;  38  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr. 
0.6115;  strong  (32d  in  this  list);  clas- 
tic (23d  in  this  list)  ;  hard  (21st  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per  cent.;  warps 
little;  very  durable;  easy  to  work;  splits 
with  some  difficulty,  takes  and  holds  nails 
well. 

Common  Uses:  Gun  stocks  (since 
17th  century),  veneers,  cabinet  making. 

Remarks:  Formerly  much  used  for 
furniture,  now  scarce.  Plentiful  in  Cal- 
ifornia. Most  valuable  wood  of  North 
American  forests.  Wood  superior  to 
European  variety. 


Kadial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


118 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


31 

MOCKERNUT.    BLACK  HICKORY.    BULL-NUT.    BIG-BUD  HICKORY. 
WHITE-HEART  HICKORY.     KING  NUT. 

Mockernut  refers  to  disappointing  character  of  nuts. 

Hicoria  alba  (Linnaeus)  Britton.    Carya  tomentosa  Nuttall. 

Hicoria,  shortened  and  latinized  from  Pawcohicora,  the  Indian  name 
for  the  liquor  obtained  from  the  kernels;  alia  refers  to  the  white  wood, 
oarya,  the  Greek  name  for  walnut;  tomentosa  refers  to  hairy  under  surface 
of  leaf. 

Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  lower  Ohio  val- 
ley, Missouri  and  Ar- 
kansas. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  75'. 
rarely  100' ;  diameter. 
2'-3';  rises  high  in  for- 
est; bark,  dark  gray, 
shallow,  irregular  inter- 
rupted fissures,  rough 
but  not  shaggy  in  old 
trees ;  leaves,  8"-12"  long, 
compound,  7-9  leaflets, 
fragrant  when  crushed: 
fruit,  spherical  nut,  thick 
shell,  edible  kernel. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 

Color,  dark  brown,  sap- 
wood  nearly  white;  ring- 
porous;  rings,  marked  by 
few  large  regularly  dis- 
tributed open  ducts  ; 
grain,  usually  straight, 
close ;  rays,  numerous, 
thin,  obscure. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


119 


Physical  Qualities:  Very  heavy  (3d 
in  this  list)  ;  53  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.,  sp.  gr., 
0.8218;  very  strong  (llth  in  this  list)  ; 
very  elastic  (14th  in  this  list)  ;  very 
hard  (3d  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  10 
per  cent. ;  warps  ;  not  dur- 
able; very  hard  to  work;  splits  with 
great  difficulty,  almost  impossible  to 
nail. 

Common  Uses:  Wheels,  runners,  tool 
and  axe  handles,  agricultural  imple- 
ments. 

Remarks:  Confounded  commercially 
with  shellbark  hickory. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential    Section, 
Hfe    size. 


120 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


32 

SHELLBARK  HICKORY.    S.HAGBARK  HICKORY. 
Hicoria  ovata  (Millar)  Britton.     Carya  alba  Nuttall. 

Hickory  is  shortened  and  latinized  from  Pawcohicora,  the  Indian  name 
for  the  liquor  obtained  from  the  kernels;  ovata  refers  to  oval  nut;  carya, 
the  Greek  name  for  walnut. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map)  ; 
best  in  lower  Ohio  val- 
ley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-90' 
and  even  120';  diameter, 
2'-3',  even  4';  straight, 
columnar  trunk ;  bark, 
dark  gray,  separates  into 
long,  hard,  plate-like 
strips,  which  cling  to 
tree  by  middle,  on  young 
trees  very  smooth  and 
close ;  leaves,  8"-20" 
long,  compound  5  or 
(7)  leaflets;  nuts,  glo- 
bular, husk,  four-valved, 
split  easily,  thin-shelled, 
edible. 

Appearance  of  Wood : 

Color,  reddish  brown, 
sap-wood  whitish;  ring- 
porous  ;  rings,  clearly 
marked;  grain,  straight; 
rays,  numerous,  thin. 


SPECIES   OP  WOODS. 


121 


Physical  Qualities:  Very  heavy  (1st 
in  this  list)  ;  51  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
0.8372;  very  strong  (5th  in  this  list); 
very  elastic  (7th  in  this  list)  ;  very  hard 
(5th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  10  per 
cent.;  warps  badly;  not  very  durable 
under  exposure;  hard  to  work,  very 
tough;  hard  to  split,  very  difficult  to 
nail. 

Common  Uses:  Agricultural  imple- 
ments, handles,  wheel  spokes. 

Remarks:  American  hickory  is  fa- 
mous both  for  buggies  and  ax  handles, 
because  it  is  flexible  and  very  tough  in 
resistance  to  blows. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


122 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


PIGNUT. 


Nuts  eaten  by  swine. 


Habitat. 


Hicoria  glabra  (Miller)  Britton.     Carya  porcina. 

Hicoria  is  shortened  and  latinized  from  Pawcohicora,  the  Indian  name 
for  the  liquor  obtained  from  the  kernel;  glabra  refers  to  smooth  bark; 
Carya  the  Greek  name  for  walnut;  porcina  means  pertaining  to  hogs. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  lower  Ohio  val- 
ley. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  80'-100'; 
diameter  2'-4';  trunk  of- 
ten forked;  bark,  lighi 
gray,  shallow  fissures, 
rather  smooth,  rarely  ex- 
foliates ;  leaves,  8"-12" 
long,  compound  7  leaflets, 
sharply  serrate;  fruit,  a 
thick-shelled  nut,  bitter 
kernel. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  or  dark  brown, 
the  thick  sap-wood 
lighter,  often  nearly 
white;  ring-porous;  rings, 
marked  .  by  many  large 
open  ducts ;  grain, 
straight;  rays,  small  and 
insignificant. 

Physical        Qualities : 

Very   heavy    (4th   in   this 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


123 


list)  ;  56  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr.,  0.8217; 
very  strong  (15th  in  this  list)  ;  elastic 
(27th  in  this  list)  ;  very  hard  (2d  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  10  per  cent. ; 

warps ;   hard  to  work ;  splits 

with  difficulty,  hard  to  drive  nails  into. 

Common   Uses:    Agricultural   imple- 
ments,, wheels,  runners,  tool  handles. 

Remarks:     Wood  not  distinguished 
from  shellbark  hickory  in  commerce. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified  z7l/2    diameters. 


Tangential  Section, 
life   size. 


124  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

34 

BLUE  BEECH.    HORNBEAM.    WATER  BEECH.    IRON-V/OOD. 

Blue  refers  to  color  of  bark;  the  trunk  resembles  beech;   horn  refers  to 
horny  texture   of   wood. 

Carpinus  caroliniana  Walter. 
Carpinus,  classical  Latin  name;   caroliniana,  named  from  the  state. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat :  ( See  map  )  ; 
best  on  western  slopes 
of  Southern  Allegheny 
Mountains  and  in  south- 
ern Arkansas  and  Texas. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  a  small 
tree,  30'-50'  high ;  diam- 
eter, 6"-2';  short,  fluted, 
sinewy  trunk ;  bark, 
smooth,  bluish  gray ; 
leaves,  falcate,  doubly 
serrate;  fruit,  small  oval 
nut,  enclosed  in  leaf-like 
bract. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  thick,  whitish;  dif- 
fuse-porous ;  rings,  ob- 
scure; grain,  close;  rays, 
numerous,  broad. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (13th  in  this 
list)  ;  45  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft., 
sp.  gr.  0.7286;  very 


SPECIES   OP   WOODS. 


125 


strong  (9th  in  this  list)  ;  very  stiff  (15th 
in  this  list)  ;  hard  (14th  in  this  list) ; 
shrinkage,  6  per  cent. ;  warps  and  checks 
badly ;  not  durable ;  hard  to  work ;  splits 
with  great  difficulty. 

Common  Uses:    Levers,  tool  handles. 

Remarks:     No  other  wood  so  good 
for  levers,  because  of  stiffness. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


126 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

35 


CANOE  BIRCH.    WHITE  BIRCH.    PAPER  BIRCH. 

All  names  refer  to  bark. 

Betula  papyrifera  Marshall. 
Betula,  the  classical  Latin  name;   papyrifera  refers  to  paper  bearing  bark. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  west  of  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  60'-80'; 
diameter,  2'-3' ;  stem 
rarely  quite  straight ; 
bark,  smooth,  white,  ex- 
terior marked  with  len- 
ticels,  peeling  freely 
horizontally  into  thin 
papery  layers,  showing 
brown  or  orange  be- 
neath, contains  oil  which 
burns  hotly,  formerly 
used  by  Indians  for  ca- 
noes, very  remarkable 
(see  Keeler,  page  304)  ; 
leaves,  heart-shaped,  ir- 
regularly serrate;  fruit, 
pendulous  strobiles. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  brown  or  reddish, 
sap-wood  white;  diffuse- 
porous  ;  rings,  obscure ; 
grain,  fairly  straight ; 
rays,  numerous,  obscure. 


SPECIES   OP  WOODS. 


127 


Physical  dualities :  Weight,  medium 
(33d  in  this  list)  ;  37  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.; 
sp.  gr.  0.5955;  very  strong  (14th  in  this 
list)  ;  very  elastic  (3d  in  this  list)  ;  me- 
dium hard  (39th  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age, 6  per  cent. ;  warps, ;  not 

durable,  except  bark ;  easy  to  work ;  splits 
with  difficulty,  nails  well,  tough. 

Common  Uses :  Spools,  shoe  lasts  and 
pegs,  turnery,  bark  for  canoes. 

Remarks:  Forms  forests.  Sap  yields 
syrup.  Bark  yields  starch.  Valuable  to 
woodsmen  in  many  ways. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


128 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

36 


RED  BIRCH.  RIVER  BIRCH. 

Red  refers  to  color  of  bark;  river,  prefers  river  bottoms. 

Betula  nigra  Linnaeus. 
Betula,  the  classical  Latin  name. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat :  ( See  map ) ; 
best  in  Florida,  Louisi- 
ana and  Texas. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  30'-80', 
and  even  higher;  diame- 
ter, 1',  even  5';  trunk, 
often  divided  low;  bark, 
dark  brown,  marked  by 
horizontal  lenticels,  peels 
into  paper  plates,  curl- 
ing back;  leaves,  doubly 
serrate,  often  almost 
lobed ;  fruit,  pubescent, 
erect,  strobiles. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  thick 
sap-wood,  whitish ;  dif- 
fuse-porous ;  rings,  not 
plain ;  grain,  close,  rather 
crooked;  rays,  numerous, 
obscure. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  medium  (36th 
in  this  list)  ;  35  Ibs.  per 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


129 


cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr.  0.5762;  strong  (22d  in 
this  list)  ;  very  elastic  (19th  in  this 
list)  ;  medium  hard  (37th  in  this  list) ; 

shrinkage,  6  per  cent. ;  warps, ; 

not  durable  when  exposed;  hard  to 
work,  tough;  splits  with  difficulty,  nails 
well. 

Common    Uses:     Shoe    lasts,    yokes, 
furniture. 

Remarks:     Prefers  moist  land. 


Kadial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified  37^    diameters. 


laugtiiiiai   section, 
life    size. 


130 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


37 

CHERRY  BIRCH.    SWEET  BIRCH.    BLACK:  BIRCH.    MAHOGANY 

BIRCH. 

Cherry,  because  bark  resembles  that  of  cherry  tree;   sweet,  refers  to  the 
taste  of  the  spicy  bark. 

Betula  lenta  Linnaeus. 

Betula,  the  classical  Latin  name;    lenta,  meaning  tenacious,  sticky,  may 
refer    to   the   gum   which    exudes    from   the   trunk. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  Tennessee  Moun- 
tains. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  50'-80'; 
diameter,  2'-5' ;  trunk, 
rarely  straight ;  bark, 
dark  reddish  brown,  on 
old  trunks  deeply  fur- 
rowed and  broken  into 
thick,  irregular  plates, 
marked  with  horizontal 
lenticels ;  resembles 
cherry ;  spicy,  aromatic ; 
leaves,  ovate,  oblong,  2"- 
6"  long,  irregularly  ser- 
rate; fruit,  erect  stro- 
biles. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  dark,  reddish 
brown ;  diffuse-porous ; 
rings,  obscure ;  grain, 
close,  satiny,  polishes 
well,  often  stained  to 
imitate  mahogany;  rays, 
numerous,  obscure. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


131 


Physical  Qualities:  Heavy  (6th  in 
this  list);  47  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
0.7617;  very  strong  (4th  in  this  list); 
very  elastic  (6th  in  this  list)  ;  hard 
(llth  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  6  per  cent, 
warps,  little;  not  durable  if  exposed; 
rather  hard  to  work;  splits  hard,  tough. 

Common  Uses:  Dowel  pins,  wooden 
ware,  boats  and  ships. 

Remarks:  The  birches  are  not  usu- 
ally distinguished  from  one  another  in 
the  market. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


132 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

38 


bark. 


YELLOW  BIRCH.    GRAY  BIRCH. 

Yellow  and  gray,  both  refer  to  the  color  of  the  bark. 

Betula  lutea  F.  A.  Michaux. 
Betula,  the  classical  Latin  name;  lutea  refers  to  the  yellow  color  of  the 


Habitat 


Habitat:  (S.eemap); 
best  in  northern  New 
York  and  Few  England. 


Leaf. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  60'-100';  di- 
ameter, 3'-4';  branches, 
low;  bark,  silvery,  yellow, 
gray,  peeling  horizontally 
into  thin,  papery,  persist- 
ent layers,  but  on  very  old 
trunks,  there  are  rough, 
irregular,  plate-like  scales; 
leaves,  ovate,  sharply, 
doubly  serrate ;  fruit, 
erect,  1"  strobiles. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  reddish  brown, 
sap-wood  white ;  diffuse- 
porous;  rings,  obscure; 
grain,  close,  fairly 
straight;  rays,  numerous, 
obscure. 

Physical  Qualities: 
Heavy  (21st  in  this  list)  ; 
40  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


133 


0.0553;  very  strong  (2nd  in  this  list); 
very  elastic  (2d  in  this  list)  ;  medium 
hard  (22d  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  6 

per  cent. ;  warps ;  not  durable ; 

rather  hard  to  work,  polishes  well;  splits 
with  difficulty,  holds  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Furniture,  spools, 
button  molds,  shoe  lasts,  shoe  pegs,  pill 
boxes,  yokes. 

Remarks:  The  birches  are  not  usu- 
ally distinguished  from  one  another  in 
the  market. 


Kauial    ejection, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


'langential   section, 
life    size. 


134 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


39 

BEECH. 

Fagus  grandifolia  Ehrhart.     Fagus  americana  Sweet.     Fagus  ferru- 
ginea  Alton.     Fagus  atropunicea  (Marshall)   Sudworth. 

Fagus  (Greek  phago  means  to  eat),  refers  to  edible  nut;  ferruginea. 
refers  to  the  iron  rust  color  of  the  leaves  in  the  fall;  atropunicea,  meaning 
dark  red  or  purple,  may  refer  to  the  color  of  the  leaves  of  the  copper 
beech. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  southern  Alleghany 
Mountains  and  lower  Ohio 
valley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-80'  and 
even  120';  diameter,  3'-4' ; 
in  forest,  trunk  tall,  slen- 
der, sinewy;  bark,  smooth, 
ashy  gray;  leaves,  feather- 
veined,  wedge-shaped,  ser- 
rate; leaf  buds,  long, 
pointed;  fruit,  2  small 
triangular  nuts,  enclosed 
in  burr,  seeds  about  once 
in  3  years. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  reddish,  variable, 
sap-wood  white ;  diffuse- 
porous  ;  rings,  obscure  • 
grain,  straight ;  rays, 
broad,  very  conspicuous. 

Physical  Qualities: 
Heavy  (20th  in  this  list)  ; 
42  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OP  WOODS. 


135 


0.6883;  very  strong  (10th  in  this  list)  ; 
elastic  (13th  in  this  list)  ;  hard  (22d  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per  cent.;  warps 
and  checks  during  seasoning;  not  dur- 
able; hard  to  work,  takes  fine  polish; 
splits  with  difficulty,  hard  to  nail. 

Common   Uses:     Plane   stocks,   shoe 
lasts,  tool  handles,  chairs. 

Remarks :    Often  forms  pure  forests  . 

Uses  due  to  its  hardness. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


136  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

40 

CHESTNUT. 

Castanea  dentata  (Marshall)  Borkhausen. 
(•aslanea,  tlie  classical  Greek  and  Latin  name;  dentata,  refers  to  toothed  leaf. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  western  North  Car- 
olina,, and  eastern  Ten- 
nessee. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  75'-100'; 
diameter,  3'-4',  and  even 
12';  branches,  low;  bark, 
thick,  shallow,  irregular, 
fissures,  broad,  grayish 
brown  ridges ;  leaves, 
lanceolate,  coarsely  ser- 
rate, midribs  and  veins 
prominent ;  fruit,  nuts, 
thin-shelled,  sweet,  en- 
closed in  prickly  burrs. 

Appearance  of  Wood : 
Color,  reddish  brown,  sap- 
wood  lighter ;  ring-porous ; 
rings,  plain,  pores  large; 
grain,  straight;  rays,  nu- 
merous, obscure. 

Physical  dualities : 
Weight,  light  (50th  in 
this  list),  28  Ibs.  per  cu. 
ft;  sp.  gr.,  0.4504;  me- 
dium strong  (46th  in  this 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


137 


list) ;  elasticity,  medium  (46th  in  this 
list)  ;  medium  hard  (44th  in  this  list)  ; 
shrinkage,  6  per  cent.;  warps  badly; 
very  durable,  especially  in  contact  with 
soil,  fairly  easy  to  plane,  chisel  and 
saw ;  splits  easily. 

Common  Uses:  Eailway  ties,  fence 
posts,  interior  finish. 

Remarks:  Grows  rapidly,  and  lives 
to  great  age.  Wood  contains  much  tan- 
nic  acid.  Uses  depend  largely  upon  its 
durability.  Lately  whole  regions  depleted 
by  fungous  pest. 


Radial    Section, 
life   size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


langential   Section, 
life   size. 


Habitat. 


138  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

41 

BED  OAK. 

Quercus  rubra  Linnaeus. 
Quercus,  the  classical  Latin  name;    rubra,  refers  to  red  color  of  wood. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  Massachusetts  and 
north  of  the  Ohio  river. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-100'> 
even  150';  diameter,  3'-6'> 
a  tall,  handsome  tree, 
branches  rather  low;  bark 
brownish  gray,  broad,  thin, 
rounded  ridges,  rathei 
smooth;  leaves,  7  to  9  tri- 
angular pointed  lobes; 
with  rounded  sinuses  > 
acorns,  characteristicall) 
large,  in  flat  shallow  cups 

Appearance   of  Wood; 

Color,  reddish  brown,  sap 
wood     darker ;     ring-por- 
ous ;  rings,  marked  by  sev 
eral    rows    of    very    large 
open  ducts ;  grain,  crooked,, 
coarse;     rays,     few,     but 
broad,  conspicuous. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (23d  in  this  list), 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


139 


45  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. ;  sp.  gr.,  0.6540 ;  strong 
(21st  in  this  list)  ;  elastic  (18th  in  this 
list)  ;  hard  (26th  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age 6  to  10  per  cent. ;  warps  and  checks 
badly;  moderately  durable;  easier  to 
work  than  white  oak;  splits  readily, 
nails  badly. 

Common  Uses:  Cooperage,  interior 
finish,  furniture. 

Remarks:  Grows  rapidly.  An  infe- 
rior substitute  for  white  oak.  Bark  used 
in  tanning. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37l/2    diameters. 


Tangential  Section, 
life   sizt. 


140  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

42 

BLACK  OAK.     YELLOW  BARK  OAK. 

Black   refers   to   color   of   outer   bark;    yellow   bark,    refers   to   the   inner 
bark,  which  is  orange  yellow. 

Quercus  velutina  Lamarck.     Quercus  tinctoria  Michaux. 

Quercus,  the  classical  Latin  name;   velutina,  refers  to  the  velvety  surface 
of  the  young  leaf;  tinctoria,  refers  to  dye  obtained  from  inner  bark. 

Habitat:     (See  map); 
best  in  lower  Ohio  valley. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-80', 
even  150';  diameter  3'-4'; 
branches,  low;  bark,  dark 
gray  to  black,  deep  fis- 
sures, broad,  rounded, 
firm  ridges,  inner  bark, 
yellow,  yielding  dye ; 
leaves,  large,  lustrous, 
leathery,  of  varied  forms; 
acorns,  small;  kernel,  yel- 
low, bitter. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  reddish  brown,  sap- 
wood  lighter ;  ring-por- 
ous; rings,  marked  by 
several  rows  of  very  large 
open  ducts ;  grain, 
crooked;  rays,  thin. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (17th  in  this  list), 
45  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. ;  sp.  gr.? 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


141 


0.7045;  very  strong  (17th  in  this  list)  ; 
elastic  (25th  in  this  list)  ;  hard  (18th 
in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  4  per  cent,  or 
more;  warps  and  checks  in  drying;  dur- 
able; rather  hard  to  work;  splits  read- 
ily, nails  badly. 

Common  Uses:     Furniture,   interior 
trim,  cooperage,  construction. 

Remarks :    Foliage  handsome  in  fall ; 
persists  thru  winter. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   z?1/^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


142 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

43 


Habitat. 


BASKET  OAK.     Cow  OAK. 

Cow  refers  to  the  fact  that  its  acorns  are  eaten  by  cattle. 
Quercus  michauxii  Nuttali. 

Quercus,  the  classical   Latin  name;     michauxii,  named  for  the  botanist 
Michaux. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  Arkansas  and 
Louisiana,  especially  in 
river  bottoms. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  SO'-lOO'; 
diameter  3',  even  7'; 
trunk,  often  clean  and 
straight  for  40'  or  50'; 
bark,  conspicuous,  light 
gray,  rough  with  loose 
ashy  gray,  scaly  ridges; 
leaves,  obovate,  regularly 
scalloped ;  acorns,  edible 
for  cattle. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  light  buff;  ring-por- 
ous; rings,  marked  by 
few  rather  large,  open 
ducts;  grain,  likely  to  be 
crooked;  rays,  broad,  con- 
spicuous. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Very  heavy    (5th   in   this 


Leaf. 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


143 


list),  46  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr.,  0.8039; 
very  strong  (12th  in  this  list);  elastic 
(33d  in  this  list);  hard  (10th  in  this 
list);  shrinkage,  4  per  cent,  or  more; 
warps  unless  carefully  seasoned;  dur- 
able; hard  and  tough  to  work;  splits 
easily,  bad  to  nail. 

Common  Uses:  Construction,  agri- 
cultural implements,  wheel  stock,  bas- 
kets. 

Remarks:  The  best  white  oak  of  the 
south.  Not  distinguised  from  white 
oak  in  the  market. 


Radial    bection, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential    bection, 
life    size. 


144  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

44 
BUR  OAK.    Mossy-Cup  OAK.    OVER-CUP  OAK. 

Quercus  macrocarpa  Michaux. 
Quercus,  the  classical  Latin  name;  macrocarpa,  refers  to  the  large  acorn. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  southern  Indiana, 
Illinois  and  Kansas. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-130', 
even  170';  diameter,  5'-7'; 
branches,  high ;  corky 
wings  on  young  branches; 
bark,  gray  brown,  deeply 
furrowed ;  deep  opposite 
sinuses  on  large  leaves; 
acorns,  half  enclosed  in 
mossy-fringed  cup. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  rich  brown,  sap- 
wood,  thin,  lighter;  ring- 
porous;  rings,  marked  by 
1  to  3  rows  of  small  open 
ducts ;  grain,  crooked ; 
rays,  broad,  and  conspic- 
uous. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (9th  in  this  list), 
46  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
0.7453;  very  strong  (16th 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


145 


in  this  list)  ;  elastic  (37th  in  this  list)  ; 
hard  (9th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  4  per 

cent  or  more ;  warps, ;  hard, 

and  tough  to  work;  splits  easily,  resists 
nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Ship  building,  cabi- 
net work,  railway  ties,  cooperage. 

Remarks:  Good  for  prairie  plant- 
ing. One  of  the  most  valuable  woods  of 
North  America.  Not  distinguished  from 
White  Oak  in  commerce. 


Radial    Section, 
life  size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


146  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

45 

WHITE  OAK   (Western). 
Quercus  garryana  Douglas. 
Quercus,  the  classical  Latin  name;  garryana,  named  for  Garry. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  western  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  60'-70', 
even  100';  diameter,  2'- 
3' ;  branches,  spreading ; 
bark,  light  brown,  shallow 
fissures,  broad  ridges ; 
leaves,  coarsely  pinnati- 
fied,  lobed;  fruit,  large 
acorns. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  whitish ;  ring-por- 
ous; rings,  marked  by  1 
to  3  rows  of  open  ducts; 
grain,  close,  crooked ; 
rays,  varying  greatly  in 
width,  often  conspicuous. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (10th  in  this  list), 
46  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft;  sp.  gr., 
0.7449;  strong  (28th  in 
this  list) ;  elasticity  me- 


SPECIES   OP  WOODS. 


147 


dium  (54th  in  this  list);  hard  (8th  in 
this  list);  shrinkage,  5  or  6  per  cent.; 
warps,  unless  carefully  seasoned;  dur- 
able; hard  to  work,  very  tough;  splits 
badly  in  nailing. 

Common   Uses:      Ship   building,   ve- 
hicles, furniture,  interior  finish. 

Remarks:      Best    of    Pacific     oaks. 
Shrubby  at  high  elevations. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


148 


WOOD  AXD  FOREST. 


46 
POST  OAK. 

Quercus  stellata  Wangenheim.     Quercus  minor   (Marsh)    Sargent. 
Quercus  obtusiloba  Michaux. 

Quercus,  the  classical  Latin  name;  stellata,  refers  to  the  stellate  hairs 
on  upper  side  of  leaf;  minor,  refers  to  size  of  tree,  which  is  often  shrubby; 
obtusiloba,  refers  to  the  blunt  lobes  of  leaves. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  Mississippi  basin. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  5^-75', 
even  100';  but  often  a 
shrub ;  diameter,  2'-3' ; 
branches,  spreading  into 
dense  round-topped  head; 
bark,  red  or  brown,  deep, 
vertical,  almost  continu- 
ous, fissures  and  broad 
ridges,  looks  corrugated ; 
leaves,  in  large  tufts  at 
ends  of  branchlets ;  acorns, 
small,  sessile. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  brown,  thick,  sap- 
wood,  lighter ;  ring-por- 
ous; rings,  1  to  3  rows  of 
not  large  open  ducts; 
grain,  crooked;  rays,  nu- 
merous, conspicuous. 

Physical  dualities : 
Yery  heavy  (2d  in  this 
list),  50  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.; 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


149 


sp.  gr.,  0.8367;  strong  (29th  in  this 
list)  ;  medium  elastic  (50th  in  this  list)  ; 
very  hard  (4th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage, 
4  per  cent,  or  more;  warps  and  checks 
badly  in  seasoning;  durable;  hard  to 
work;  splits  readily,  bad  to  nail. 

Common   Uses:     Cooperage,   railway 
ties,  fencing,  construction. 


Remarks :     Wood     often 
guished  from  white  oak. 


unclistin- 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


Habitat. 


150  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

47 
WHITE  OAK.    STAVE  OAK. 

Quercus  alba  Linnaeus. 
Quercus,  the  classical  Latin  name;  white  and  alba,  refer  to  white  bark. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  on  western  slopes 
of  Southern  Alleghany 
Mountains,  and  in  lower 
Ohio  river  valley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  80'-100'; 
diameter,  3'-5';  trunk,  in 
forest,  tallj  in  open,  short ; 
bark,  easily  distinguished, 
light  gray  with  shallow 
fissures,  scaly ;  leaves, 
rounded  lobes,  and  sin- 
uses; acorns.,  y/\"  to  1" 
long,  ripen  first  year. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  paler;  ring-porous; 
rings,  plainly  defined,  by 
pores ;  grain  crooked ; 
rays,  broad,  very  conspic- 
uous and  irregular. 


Physical         Qualities : 
Heavy    (8th  in  this  list), 
Leaf>  50    Ibs.    per   cu.    ft. ;    sp. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


151 


gr.,  0.7470;  strong  (23d  in  this  list); 
elastic  (32d  in  this  list);  hard  (13th 
in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  from  4  to  10 
per  cent.;  warps  and  checks  consider- 
ably, unless  carefully  seasoned;  very  dur- 
able, hard  to  work;  splits  somewhat 
hard,  very  difficult  to  nail. 

Common  TJses :  Interior  finish,  furni- 
ture, construction,  ship  building,  farm 
implements,  cabinet  making. 

Remarks:  The  most  important  of 
American  oaks. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37  y2    diameters. 


Tangential  Section, 
life   size. 


152 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


48 

CORK  ELM.    EOCK  ELM.    HICKORY  ELM.    WHITE  ELM. 
CLIFF  ELM. 

Cork  refers  to  corky  ridges  on  branches. 

Ulmus  tliomasi  Sargent.    Ulmus  racemosa  Thomas. 
Ulmus,  the  classical  Latin  name;  racemosa,  refers  to  racemes  of  flowers. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  Ontario  and  south- 
ern Michigan. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  80'-100'; 
diameter,  2'-3',  trunk  of- 
ten clear  for  60';  bark, 
gray  tinged  with  red, 
corky,  irregular  projec- 
tions, give  shaggy  appear- 
ance ;  leaves,  obovate, 
doubly  serrate,  3"-4"  long ; 
fruit,  pubescent,  samaras. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown  or  red; 
sap-wood  yellowish;  ring- 
porous;  rings,  marked 
with  one  or  two  rows  of 
small  open  ducts;  grain, 
interlaced ;  rays,  numer- 
ous, obscure. 

Physical         Qualities : 
Heavy  (15th  in  this  list). 
45  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. ;  sp.  gr., 
Leaf.  0.7263;   very  strong  (13th 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


153 


in  this  list)  ;  elastic  (22d  in  this  list)  ; 
hard  (15th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5 
per  cent. ;  warps,  ;  very  dur- 
able; hard  to  work;  splits  and  nails 
with  difficulty. 

Common    Uses:     Hubs,    agricultural 
implements,  sills,  bridge  timbers. 

Remarks:     The     best    of    the    elm 
woods. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


154 


WOOD  AND  FOEEST. 

49 


WHITE  ELM.    AMERICAN  ELM.    WATER  ELM. 

Water,   because  it   flourishes   on  river   banks. 

Ulmus  americana  Linnaeus. 
Vlmus,  the  classical  Latin  name. 


\  \\ 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  northward  on  river 
bottoms. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  90',  even 
120';  diameter,  3'-8'; 
trunk,,  usually  divides  at 
30'-40'  from  ground  into 
upright  branches,  making 
triangular  outline;  bark, 
ashy  gray,  deep  longitu- 
dinal fissures,  broad 
ridges ;  leaves,  4"-6" 
long,  oblique  obovate^ 
doubly  serrate,  smooth 
one  way;  fruit,  small, 
roundish,  flat,  smooth,  sa- 
maras. 

Appearance  of  Wood: 
Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  yellowish;  ring-po- 
rous; rings,  marked  by 
"several  rows  of  large  open 
ducts ;  grain,  interlaced ; 
rays,  numerous,  thin. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


155 


Physical  Qualities:     Heavv  (24th  in 
-f  0.5-6 

this    list,     §4    Ibs.     per     cu.     ft;     sp. 

gr.,  0.6506;  strong  (33d  in  this  list); 
elasticity,  medium  (59th  in  this  list)  ; 
medium  hard  (28th  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age, 5  per  cent. ;  warps ;  not 

durable;  hard  to  work,  tough,  will  not 
polish;  splits  with  difficulty. 

Common     Uses:      Cooperage,     wheel 
stock,  flooring. 

Remarks:     Favorite   ornamental  tree, 
but  shade  light,  and  leaves  fall  early. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
nngnified   37^    diameters. 


'J  angeiitial   Section, 
life    size. 


156 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


50 

CUCUMBER  TREE.    MOUNTAIN  MAGNOLIA. 

Cucumber,  refers  to  the  shape  of  the  fruit. 

Magnolia  acuminata  Linnaeus. 

Magnolia,  named  for  Pierre  Magnol,  a  French  botanist;     acuminata,  re- 
fers to  pointed  fruit. 

Habitat:  (See  map)  ; 
best  at  the  base  of  moun- 
tains in  North  Carolina 
and  South  Carolina  and 
Tennessee. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  60'-90'; 
diameter,  3'-4';  in  forest, 
clear  trunk  for  2/3  of 
height  (40'  or  50') ;  bark, 
dark  brown,  thick,  fur- 
rowed ;  leaves,  large, 
smooth ;  flowers,  large 
greenish  yellow ;  fruit, 
dark  red  "cones"  formed 
of  two  seeded  follicles. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  yellow  brown,  thick 
sapwood,  lighter;  diffuse- 
porous;  rings,  obscure; 
grain,  very  straight,  close, 


Habitat. 


satiny ; 
thin. 


rays, 


numerous 


Leaf. 


Physical         Qualities: 

Light  (45th  in  this  list), 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


157 


. . .  .  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. ;  sp.  gr.,  0.4690 ; 
medium  strong  (49th  in  this  list)  ;  elas- 
tic (38th  in  this  list);  medium 
hard  (41st  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5 
per  cent. ;  warps  ;  very  dur- 
able; easy  to  work;  splits  easily,  takes 
nails  well. 

Common    Uses:     Pump    logs,    cheap 
furniture,  shelving. 

Remarks:     Wood   similar  to   yellow 
poplar,  and  often  sold  with  it. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


158 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


51 

YELLOW  POPLAR.    WHITEWOOD.    TULIP  TREE. 

Poplar,  inappropriate,  inasmuch  as  the  tree  does  not  belong  to  poplar 
family.  White,  refers  inappropriately  to  the  color  of  the  wood,  which  is 
greenish  yellow. 

Liriodendron  tulipifera  Linnaeus. 
Liriodendron,  means  lily-tree;     tulipifera  means  tulip-bearing. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  lower  Ohio  valley 
and  southern  Appalach- 
ian mountains. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-90';, 
even  200';  diameter,  6'-8', 
even  12';  tall,  magnifi- 
cent trunk,  unsurpassed 
in  grandeur  by  any  east- 
ern American  tree;  bark, 
brown,  aromatic,  evenly 
furrowed  so  as  to  make 
clean,  neat-looking  trunk; 
leaves,  4  lobed,  apex,  pe- 
culiarly truncated,  clean 
cut;  flowers,  tulip-like; 
fruit,  cone,  consisting  of 
many  scales. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  greenish  or 
yellow  brown,  sap-wood, 
creamy  white ;  diffuse- 
porous;  rings,  close  but 
distinct ;  grain,  straight ; 
rays,  numerous  and  plain. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


159 


Physical  Qualities:  Light  (54th  in 
this  list),  26  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
€.4230;  medium  strong  (51st  in  this 
list)  ;  elastic  (39th  in  this  list)  ;  soft 
(49th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per 
cent;  warps  little;  durable;  easy  to 
work;  brittle  and  does  not  split  readily, 
nails  very  well. 

Common  Uses:  Construction  work, 
furniture,  interiors,  boats,  carriage  bod- 
ies, wooden  pumps. 

Remarks:  Being  substituted  largely 
for  white  pine. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37 J4    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life   size. 


160 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


SWEET  GUM. 
Gum,   refers  to   exudations. 

Liquidambar  styraciflua  Linnaeus. 
Liquidamlar,  means  liquid  gum;    styraciflua,  means  fluid  resin  (storax). 

Habitat:  (See  map)  ; 
best  in  the  lower  Mississ- 
ippi valley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  80'-140'; 
diameter,  3'-5' ;  trunk, 
tall,  straight;  bark,  light 
brown  tinged  with  red, 
deeply  fissured ;  branch- 
lets  often  having  corky 
wings;  leaves,  star-shaped, 
five  pointed ;  conspicu- 
ously purple  and  crimson 
in  autumn;  fruit,  multi- 
capsular,  spherical,  per- 
sistent heads. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  red  brown, 
sap-wood  almost  white ; 
diffuse-porous ;  rings,  fine 
and  difficult  to  distin- 
guish ;  grain,  straight, 
close,  polishes  well;  rays, 
numerous,  very  obscure. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  medium  (34th  in 


i    a 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


161 


this  list),  37  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
0.5909;  medium  strong  (52d  in  this 
list;  elasticity  medium  (44th  in  this 
list)  ;  medium  hard  (36th  in  this  list)  ; 
shrinkage,  6  per  cent.;  warps  and 
twists  badly  in  seasoning;  not  durable 
svhen  exposed;  easy  to  work;  crumbles 
in  splitting;  nails  badly. 

Common  Uses:  Building  construc- 
tion, cabinet-work,  veneering,  street 
pavement,  barrel  staves  and  heads. 

Remarks:  Largely  used  in  veneers, 
because  when  solid  it  warps  and  twists 
badly.  Exudations  used  in  medicine  to 
some  extent. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


162 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


53 

SYCAMORE.    BUTTONWOOD.    BUTTON  BALI,.    WATER  BEECH. 

Sycamore,  from  two  Greek  words  meaning  fig  and  mulberry;   buttonwood 
and   button-ball,   refer   to   fruit  balls. 

Platanus  occidentalis  Linnaeus. 

Platanus,  refers  to  the  broad  leaves;    occidentalis,  western,  to  distinguish 
it   from  European   species. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  valley  of  lower 
Ohio  and  Mississippi. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-100', 
and  even  170';  diameter, 
6'-12';  trunk,  commonly 
divides  into  2  or  3  large 
branches,  limbs  spreading, 
often  dividing  angularly ; 
bark,  flakes  off  in  great 
irregular  masses,  leaving 
mottled  surface,  greenish 
gray  and  brown,  this  pe- 
culiarity due  to  its  rigid 
texture;  leaves,  palmately 
3  to  5  lobed,  4"-9"  long, 
petiole  enlarged,  enclosing 
buds;  fruit,  large  rough 
balls,  persistent  through 
winter. 

Appearance   of  Wood : 

Color,  reddish  brown,  sap- 
wood  lighter ;  diffuse- 
porous;  rings,  marked  by 


SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


163 


broad  bands  of  small  ducts ;  grain,  cross, 
close;  rays,  numerous,  large,  conspicu- 
ous. 

Physical  Qualities:  Weight,  medium 
(38th  in  this  list),  35  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.; 
sp.  gr.,  0.5678;  medium  strong  (54th 
in  this  list)  ;  elasticity,  medium  (43d 
in  this  list;  medium  hard  (30th 
in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per  cent. ; 
warps  little;  very  durable,  once  used 
for  mummy  coffins;  hard  to  work;  splits 
?ery  hard. 

Common  Uses:  Tobacco  boxes,  yokes, 
furniture,  butcher  blocks. 

Remarks:  Trunks  often  very  large 
and  hollow. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


Habitat. 


164  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

54 

WILD  BLACK  CHERRY. 
Padus  serotina  (Ehrhart)  Agardh.     Prunus  serotina  Ehrhart. 

Padus,  the  old  Greek  name;  prunus,  the  classical  Latin  name;  serotina, 
because   it  blossoms    late    (June). 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  on  southern  Allegheny 
mountains. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  40'-50', 
even  100';  diameter,  2'-4'; 
straight,  columnar  trunk, 
often  free  from  branches 
for  70';  bark,  blackish 
and  rough,  fissured  in  all 
directions,  broken  into 
small,  irregular,  scaly 
plates,  with  raised  edges; 
leaves,  oblong  to  lanceo- 
late, deep,  shiny  green; 
fruit,  black  drupe,  y2". 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown  or  red, 
sap-wood  yellow;  diffuse- 
porous  ;  rings,  obscure ; 
grain,  straight,  close,  fine, 
takes  fine  polish ;  rays, 
numerous. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Weight,  medium  (35th  in 


Leaf. 


SPECIES    OF   WOODS. 


165 


this  list),  36  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
0.5822;  strong  (35th  in  this  list) ;  elas- 
ticity medium  (45th  in  this  list)  ; 
hard  (16th  in  this  list);  shrinkage,  5 
per  cent.;  warps,  little;  durability 
;  easily  worked ;  splits  eas- 
ily, must  be  nailed  with  care. 

Common  Uses:     Cabinet-work,  costly 
interior  trim. 

Remarks:     Grows  rapidly. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


166 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

55 


BLACK  LOCUST.    LOCUST.    YELLOW  LOCUST. 

Yellow,  from  color  of  sap-wood. 

Robinia  pseudacacia  Linnaeus. 
Robinia,  in  honor  of  Jean  Robin,  of  France;  pseudacacia,  means  false  acacia. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  on  western  Allegheny 
mountains  in  West  Vir- 
ginia. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  50'-80' ; 
diameter,  3'-4' ;  bark, 
strikingly  deeply  fur- 
rowed, dark  brown ; 
prickles  on  small  branches, 
grows  fast,  forms  thick- 
ets, on  account  of  under- 
ground shoots ;  leaves, 
8"-14"  long,  pinnately 
compound;  7  to  9  leaf- 
lets, close  at  night  and  in 
rainy  weather;  fruit,  pod 
3"-4"  long. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  brown,  sap-wood 
thin,  yellowish ;  ring-por- 
ous; rings,  clearly  marked 
by  2  or  3  rows  of  large 
open  ducts ;  grain, 
crooked,  compact. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


167 


Physical  Qualities:  Heavy  (12th  in 
.this  list),  45  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
0.7333;  very  strong  (1st  in  this  list); 
elastic  (9th  in  this  list)  ;  very  hard 
(6th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per 
cent.;  warps  badly,  very  durable;  hard 
to  work,  tough;  splits  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Shipbuilding,  con- 
struction, "tree-nails"  or  pins,  wagon 
hubs. 

Remarks:  Widely  planted  and  cul- 
tivated east  and  west.  Likely  to  be  in- 
fested with  borers. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37 H    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


168 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


56 

MAHOGANY. 
Swietenia  mahagoni  Jacquin. 

Swietenia,  in  honor  of  Dr.  Gerard  Van  Swieten  of  Austria;  mahagoni,  a 
South  American  word. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
only  on  Florida  Keys  in 
the  United  States. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  40'-50'; 
diameter,  2'  or  more,  for- 
eign trees  larger;  immense 
buttresses  at  base  of  trunk ; 
bark,  thick,  dark  red- 
brown,  having  surface  of 
broad,  thick  scales;  leaves, 
4"-6"  long,  compound,  4 
pairs  of  leaflets;  fruit, 
4"-5"  long,  containing 
seeds. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  red-brown,  sap- 
wood,  thin,  yellow  •  dif- 
fuse-porous; rings,  incon- 
spicuous ;  grain,  crooked ; 
rays,  fine  and  scattered, 
but  plain. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (14th  in  this  list), 
45  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. ;  sp.  gr., 
0.7282;  very  strong  (20th 
in  this  list)  ;  elastic  (24th 
in  this  list) ;  very  hard 
(1st  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


169 


age,  5  per  cent. ;  warps  very  little ;  very 
durable;  genuine  mahogany,,  hard  to 
work;  especially  if  grain  is  cross;  some- 
what brittle,  and  comparatively  easy  to 
split,  nails  with  difficulty;  polishes  and 
takes  glue  well. 

Common  Uses:  Chiefly  for  cabinet- 
making,  furniture,  interior  finishes  and 
veneers. 

Remarks:  Mahogany,  now  in  great 
demand  in  the  American  market  for  fine 
furniture  and  interior  trim  comes  from 
the  West  Indies,  Central  America  and 
West  Africa.  The  so-called  Spanish 
mahogany,  the  most  highly  prized  va- 
riety, came  originally  from  the  south  of 
Hayti.  The  Honduras  Mahogany  was 
often  called  baywood.  Botanically  the 
varieties  are  not  carefully  distinguished ; 
in  the  lumber  yard  the  lumber  is  known 
by  its  sources.  The  Cuba  wood  can  be 
partly  distinguished  by  the  white  chalk- 
like  specks  in  the  pores  and  is  cold  to 
the  touch,  while  the  Honduras  wood  can 
be  recognized  by  the  black  specks  or  lines 
in  the  grain.  Both  the  Honduras  and 
West  India  woods  have  a  softer  feel 
than  the  African  wood,  when  rubbed 
with  the  thumb.  The  Cuba  and  St.  Do- 
mingo wood  are  preferred  to  the  Hon- 
duras, and  still  more  to  the  African,  but 
even  experts  have  difficulty  in  distin- 
guishing the  varieties. 

Spanish  cedar,  or  furniture  cedar 
(Cedrela  odorata)  belongs  to  the  same 
family  as  mahogany  and  is  often  sold 
for  it.  It  is  softer,  lighter,  and  easier 
to  work. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


170  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

57 

OREGON  MAPLE.    WHITE  MAPLE.    LARGE  LEAVED  MAPLE. 

Acer  macro phyUum  Pursh. 
Acer,  the  classical  Latin  name;  macrophyllum,  refers  to  the  large  leaves. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat :  ( See  map) ; 
best  in  southern  Oregon. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  70'-100'; 
diameter,  3'-5';  stout,  of- 
ten pendulous  branches, 
making  a  handsome  tree; 
bark,  reddish  brown, 
deeply  furrowed,  square 
scales;  leaves,  very  large, 
8"-12"  and  long  petioles, 
deep,  narrow  sinuses ; 
fruit,  hairy  samaras. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  rich  brown  and  red, 
sap-wood  thick,  nearly 
white ;  diffuse-porous ; 
rings,  obscure ;  grain, 
close,  fibres  interlaced, 
sometimes  figured,  pol- 
ishes well;  rays,  numer- 
ous and  thin. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Light  in  weight  (26th  in 
this  list),  30  Ibs.  per  cu. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


171 


ft.,  sp.  gr.  0.4909 ;  medium  strong  (47th 
in  this  list)  ;  elasticity  medium  (57th 
in  this  list)  ;  medium  hard  (31st  in  this 
list)  ;  shrinkage,  4  per  cent. ;  warps 

;    not  durable ;    rather  hard 

to  work;  splits  with  difficulty. 

Common  Uses:  Tool  and  ax  handles, 
furniture,  interior  finish. 


Remarks : 

Pacific  coast. 


A  valuable  wood  on  the 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


172 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

58 


Habitat. 


SOFT  MAPLE.     WHITE  MAPLE.     SILVER  MAPLE. 

Silver,  refers  to  white   color   of  underside  of   leaf. 

Acer  saccharinum  Linnaeus.     Acer  dasycarpum  Ehrhart. 

Acer,  the  classical  Latin  name;    saccharinum,  refers  to   sweetish   juice; 
dasycarpum,  refers  to  the  wooliness  of  the  fruit  when  young. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  lower  Ohio  valley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  50'-90', 
even  120';  diameter,  3'-5'; 
form  suggests  elm;  bark, 
reddish  brown,  furrowed, 
surface  separating  into 
large,  loose  scales;  leaves, 
palmately  5  lobed,  with 
narrow,  acute  sinuses,  sil- 
very white  beneath,  turn 
only  yellow  in  autumn; 
fruit,  divergent,  winged 
samaras. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  brown  and  reddish, 
sap-wood,  cream;  diffuse- 
porous  ;  rings,  obscure ; 
grain,  twisted,  wavy,  fine, 
polishes  well;  rays,  thin, 
numerous. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  medium  (40th  in 
this  list),  32  Ibs.  per  cu. 


Leaf. 


SPECIES  OP  WOODS. 


173 


ft.;  sp.  gr.,  0.5269;  very  strong  (19th 
in  this  list;  very  elastic  (20th  in  this 
list) ;  hard  (25th  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age,, 5  per  cent. ;  warps, ; 

not  durable  under  exposure;  easily 
worked;  splits  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Flooring,  furniture, 
turnery,  wooden  ware. 

Remarks:  Grows  rapidly.  Curly 
varieties  found.  Sap  produces  some 
sugar. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^2    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


174  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

59 

RED  MAPLE. 
Acer  rubrum  Linnaeus. 

Acer,    the    classical    Latin    name;     rubrum,    refers    to    red    flowers    and 
autumn  leaves. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  lower  Ohio  valley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  80'-120'; 
diameter,  2'-4';  branches, 
low;  bark,  dark  gray, 
shaggy,  divided  by  long 
ridges ;  leaves,  palmately 
5  lobed,  acute  sinuses; 
fruit,  double  samaras, 
forming  characteristic  ma- 
ple key. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  reddish  brown, 
sap-wood,  lighter;  diffuse- 
porous  ;  rings,  obscure ; 
grain,  crooked;  rays,  nu- 
merous, obscure. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  medium  (30th  in 
this  list),  38  Ibs,  per  cu. 
ft.;  sp.  gr.,  0.6178;  strong 
(36th  in  this  list)  ;  elas- 
tic (36th  in  this  list)  ; 
hard  (27th  in  this  list)  ; 


SPECIES  OP  WOODS. 


17 


shrinkage,  5  per  cent. ;    warps   ; 

not  durable;   fairly  hard  to  work;  splits 
with  difficulty,  splits  badly  in  nailing. 


Common    Uses : 
wooden  ware. 


Flooring,    turning, 


Remarks:  Grows  rapidly.  Has  red 
flowers,  red  keys,  red  leaf  stems,  and 
leaves  scarlet  or  crimson  in  autumn. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified  37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


176 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


60 


HARD  MAPLE.     SUGAR  MAPLE.    EOCK  MAPLE. 

Acer  saccharum  Marshall. 
Acer,  the  classical  Latin  name;    saccharum,  refers  to  sweet  sap. 

Habitat:  (See  map) ; 
best  in  regions  of  Great 
Lakes. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  100'-120'; 
diameter,  l^'-S',  even  4'; 
often  trees  in  forest  are 
without  branches  for  60'- 
70'  from  ground,  in  the 
open,  large  impressive 
tree;  bark,  gray  brown, 
thick,  deep,  longitudinal 
fissures,  hard  and  rough; 
leaves,  opposite,  3  to  5 
lobed,  scarlet  and  yellow 
in  autumn;  fruit,  double, 
slightly  divergent  samaras. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  brown  tinged 
with  red ;  diffuse-porous 
rings,  close  but  distinct; 
grain,  crooked,  fine,  close, 
polishes  well;  rays,  fine 
but  conspicuous. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Heavy  (19th  in  this  list). 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


177 


43  Ibs.  per  cm.  ft.;  sp.  gr.,  0.6912;  very 
strong  (8th  in  this  list)  ;  very  elastic 
(5th  in  this  list)  ;  very  hard  (7th  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per  cent. ;  warps 
badly;  not  durable  when  exposed;  hard 
to  work;  splits  badly  in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  School  and  other  fur- 
niture, car  construction,,  carving,  wooden 
type,  tool  handles,  shoe  lasts,  piano  ac- 
tions, ships'  keels. 

Remarks:  Tree  very  tolerant.  The 
uses  of  this  wood  are  chiefly  due  to  its 
hardness.  Bird's-Eye  Maple  and  Curly 
Maple  are  accidental  varieties.  Pure 
maple  sugar  is  made  chiefly  from  this 
species.  Its  ashes  yield  large  quantities 
of  potash. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


178 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


61 

BASSWOOD.     LINDEN. 

Bass,  refers  to  .bast  or  inner  bark. 

Tilia  americana  Linnaeus. 
Tilia,  the  classical  Latin  name. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  bottom  lands  of 
lower  Ohio  Eiver. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  G0'-70', 
even  130';  diameter,  2'-4'; 
trunk,  erect,  pillar-like, 
branches  spreading,  mak- 
ing round  heads;  bark, 
light  brown,  furrowed, 
scaly  surface,  inner  bark 
fibrous  and  tough,  used 
for  matting ;  leaves, 
oblique,  heart-shaped,  side 
nearest  branch  larger ; 
fruit  clustered  on  long 
pendulous  stem,  attached 
to  vein  of  narrow  bract. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  very  light  brown, 
approaching  cream  color, 
sap-wood,  hardly  distin- 
guishable ;  diffuse-porous ; 
rings,  fine  and  close  but 
clear;  grain,  straight: 
rays,  numerous,  obscure. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


.179 


Physical  Qualities:  Light  in  weight 
(49th  in  this  list),  28  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.; 
sp.  gr.,  0.4525;  weak  (60th  in  this  list)  ; 
elasticity,  medium  (49th  in  this  list)  ; 
soft  (64th  in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  6 
per  cent. ;  warps  comparatively  little ; 
quite  durable;  very  easily  worked;  some- 
what tough  to  split,  nails  well. 

Common  Uses:  Woodenware,  carriage 
bodies,  etc.,  picture  molding,  paper  pulp, 
etc. 

Remarks:  May  be  propagated  by 
grafting  as  well  as  by  seed.  Is  subject 
to  attack  by  many  insects.  Wood  used 
for  carriage  bodies  because  flexible  and 
easilv  nailed. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


180 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


62 


SOUR  GUM.    TUPELO. 

Tupelo,  the  Indian  name. 


PEPPERIDGE.    BLACK  GUM. 


Nyssa  sylvatica  Marshal. 

Nyssa,  from  Nysa,  the  realm  of  moist  vegetation  and  the  home  of 
Dio-nysus  (Bacchus)  (the  tree  grows  in  low  wet  lands)  ;  sylvatica,  refers 
to  its  habit  of  forest  growth. 


\ 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  Southern  Appala- 
chian mountains. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  40'-50', 
even  100';  diameter,  1"- 
6",  even  5'  •  variable  in 
form;  bark,  brown,  deeply 
fissured  and  scaly;  leaves, 
in  sprays,  short,  petioled, 
brilliant  scarlet  in  au- 
tumn; fruit,  bluish  black, 
sour,  fleshy  drupe. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  pale  yellow,  sap- 
wood,  white,  hardly  dis- 
tinguishable ;  diffuse-por- 
ous; rings,  not  plain; 
grain  fine,  twisted  and  in- 
terwoven ;  rays,  numer- 
ous, thin. 

Physical  Qualities : 
Medium  heavy  (25th  in 
this  list),  39  Ibs.  per  cu. 
ft;  sp.  .  gr.,  0.6356; 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


181 


strong  (34th  in  this  list)  ;  elasticity, 
medium  (51st  in  this  list)  ;  hard  (20th 
in  this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  or  6  per 
cent. ;  warps  and  checks  badly ;  not 
durable  if  exposed;  hard  to  work;  splits 
hard,  tough. 

Common  Uses:  Wagon  hubs,  handles, 
yokes,  wooden  shoe  soles,  docks  and 
wharves,  rollers  in  glass  factories. 

Remarks :  The  best  grades  closely  re- 
semble yellow  poplar. 


Kadial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


182 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


BLACK  ASH.    HOOP  ASH. 

Hoop,  refers  to  its  use  for  barrel  hoops. 

Fraxinus  nigra  Marshall.     Fraxinus  scambucifolia. 
Fraxinus,  from   a   Greek   word    (phraxis)    meaning  split,   refers  to   the 
cleavability  of  the  wood;  sambucifolia,  refers  to  the  fact  that  the  leaves  are 
in  odor  like  those  of  Elder    (Sambucus). 

Habitat:     (S;ee  map) ; 
best  in  moist  places. 


Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  80'-90';  di- 
ameter, I'-IJ^';  slender- 
est of  the  forest  trees,  up- 
right branches;  bark,  gray 
tinged  with  red,  irregular 
plates,  with  thin  scales; 
leaves,  10"-16"  long,  com- 
pound, 7  to  11  leaflets,  in 
autumn  rusty  brown ; 
fruit,  single  samaras  in 
panicles. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  dark  brown,  sap- 
wood  light;  ring-porous; 
rings,  well  defined;  grain, 
straight,  burls  often  form 
highly  prized  veneers ; 
rays,  numerous  and  thin. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Medium  heavy  (27th  in 
this  list),  39  Ibs.  per  cu. 
ft.;  sp.  gr.,  0.6318;  strong 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


183 


(38th  in  this  list)  ;  elasticity,  medium 
(12th  in  this  list)  ;  hard  (23d  in  this 
list) ;  shrinkage,  5  per  cent. ;  warps, 
but  not  very  much;  not  durable  when 
exposed;  hard  to  work;  separates  easily 
in  layers,  hence  used  for  splints. 

Common  Uses:     Interior  finish,  cab- 
inet work,  fencing,  barrel  hoops. 

Remarks:     The     flexibility     of    the 
wood  largely  determines  its  uses. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37 Yz    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


184  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

64 

OREGON  ASH. 
Fraxinus  oregona  Nuttall. 

Fraxinus,   from   a  Greek   word    (phraxis)    meaning  split,   refers   to   the 
cleavability  of  the  wood ;    oregona,  named  for  the  State  of  Oregon. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  southern  Oregon. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  50'-80';  di- 
ameter, 1'-1J^',  even  4'; 
branches,  stout,  erect; 
bark,  grayish  brown,  deep 
interrupted  fissures,  broad, 
flat  ridges,  exfoliates ; 
leaves,  5"-14"  long;  pin- 
nately  compound,  5  to  7 
leaflets;  fruit,  single  sa- 
maras in  clusters. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  brown,  sap-wood 
thick,  lighter ;  ring-por- 
ous ;  rings,  plainly  marked 
by  large,  open,  scattered 
pores ;  grain,  coarse, 
straight;  rays,  numerous, 
thin. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  medium  (37th  in 
this  list),  35  Ibs.  per  cu. 
ft;  sp.  gr.,  0.5731;  me- 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


185 


dium  strong  (50th  in  this  list)  ;  elastic- 
ity, medium  (48th  in  this  list;  me- 
dium hard  (29th  in  this  list)  ;  shrink- 
age, 5  per  cent. ;  warps, ; 

not  durable;  hard  to  work,  tough:  splits 
with  difficulty. 

Common    Uses:   Furniture,    vehicles, 
cooperage. 

Remarks:    A  valuable  timber  tree  of 
the  Pacific  coast. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified    37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


186 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


65 

BLUE  ASH. 

Blue,  refers  to  blue  dye  obtained  from  inner  bark. 

Fraxinus  quadrangulata  Michaux. 

Frdxinus,   from   a   Greek   word    (phraxis)    meaning  split,   refers   to   the 
cleavabilty  of  the  wood;    quadrangulata,  refers  to  four-angled  branchlets. 


Habitat. 


Leaf. 


Habitat:  (S;ee  map) ; 
best  in  lower  Wabash  val- 
ley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  60'-70'; 
even  120';  diameter,  l'-2'; 
tall,  slender,  four-angled,, 
branchlets ;  bark,  light 
gray,  irregularly  divided 
into  large  plate-like  scales, 
inside  bark,  bluish,  yield- 
ing dye;  leaves,  8"-12" 
long,  compound  pinnate, 
5  to  9  leaflets;  fruit, 
winged  samaras  in  pan- 
icles. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  yellow, 
streaked  with  brown,  sap- 
wood  lighter ;  ring-por- 
ous ;  rings,  clearly  marked 
by  1  to  3  rows  of  large, 
open  ducts ;  grain, 
straight;  rays,  numerous, 
obscure. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


187 


Physical  Qualities:  Heavy  (16th  in 
this  list),  44  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft.;  sp.  gr., 
0.7184;  strong  (37th  in  this  list)  ;  elas- 
ticity, medium  (58th  in  this  list)  ;  hard 
(12th  in  this  list);  shrinkage,  5  per 
cent. ;  warps, ;  most  dur- 
able of  the  ashes;  hard  to  work;  splits 
readily,  bad  for  nailing. 

Common  Uses:  Carriage  building, 
tool  handles. 

Remarks:  Blue  ash  pitchfork  han- 
dles are  famous. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Tangential   Section, 
life    size. 


188 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


66 

BED  ASH. 

Red,  from  color  of  inner  bark. 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica  Marshall.    Fraxinus  pubescens  Lambert. 
63.  Engelmann's  spruce. 

Fraxinus,  from  a  Greek  word  (phraxis)  meaning  split,  refers  to  the 
cleavability  of  the  wood;  pennsylvanica,  in  honor  of  the  State  of  Pennsyl- 
vania; pubescens,  refers  to  down  on  new  leaves  and  twigs. 

Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  east  of  Alleghany 
mountains. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree:  Height,  40'-60';  di- 
ameter, 12"-18";  small, 
slim,  upright  branches ; 
bark,  brown  or  ashy,  great, 
shallow,  longitudinal  fur- 
rows ;  leaves,  10"-12" 
long,  pinnately  compound, 
7  to  9  leaflets,  covered 
with  down;  fruit,  single 
samara. 

Appearance   of   Wood: 

Color,  light  brown,  sap- 
wood  lighter  and  yellow- 
ish; ring  porous;  rings, 
marked  by  pores ;  grain, 
straight,  coarse ;  rays, 
numerous,  thin. 

Physical         Qualities : 

Weight,  medium  (28th  in 
this  list),  39  Ibs.  per  cu. 
ft.;  sp.  gr.,  0.6251;  strong 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF    WOODS. 


189 


(30th  in  this  list)  ;  elasticity,  medium 
(53d  in  this  list;  hard  (17th  in  this 
list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per  cent.;  warps  lit- 
tle; not  durable;  hard  to  work;  splits 
in  nailing. 

Common  Uses:    Agricultural   imple- 
ments, oars,  handles,  boats. 

Remarks:      Often   sold  with   and   as 
the  superior  white  ash. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^2    diameters. 


Tangential    Section, 
life    size. 


190 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Habitat. 


67 

WHITE  ASH. 

White,   refers  to  whitish  color  of  wood. 

Fraxinus  americana  Linnaeus. 

Fraxinus,   from    a   Greek   word    (phraacis)    meaning   split,   refers   to  the 
leavability  of  the  wood. 

Habitat:  (See  map); 
best  in  the  bottom  lands- 
of  lower  Ohio  valley. 

Characteristics  of  the 
Tree :  Height,  70'-80'? 
even  120';  diameter,  3'-6'; 
branches  rather  high,  tree 
singularly  graceful;  bark, 
gray,  narrow  furrows, 
clean,  neat  trunk;  leaves, 
8"-15"  long,  compound, 
tufted,  smooth,  turns  in 
autumn  to  beautiful  pur- 
ples, browns  and  yellows; 
fruit,  panicles  of  samaras, 
persistent  till  midwinter. 

Appearance   of  Wood: 

Color,  light  reddish  brown, 
sap-wood  whitish ;  ring- 
porous,  rings  clearly 
marked  by  pores ;  straight- 
grained;  pith  rays  ob- 
scure. 

Physical  Qualities  r 
Heavy  (22d  in  this  list), 
39  Ibs.  per  cu.  ft. ;  sp.  gr.,, 


Leaf. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


191 


0.6543;  strong  (31st  in  this  list);  elas- 
tic (30th  in  this  list)  ;  hard  (17th  in 
this  list)  ;  shrinkage,  5  per  cent. ;  warps 
little ;  not  durable  in  contact  with  soil ; 
hard  and  tough;  splits  readily,  nails 
badly. 

Common  Uses:  Inside  finish,  farm 
implements,  barrels,  baskets,  oars,  car- 
riages. 

Remarks:  Forms  no  forests,  occurs 
scattered.  Its  uses  for  handles  and  oars 
determined  by  combination  of  strength, 
lightness  and  elasticity. 


Radial    Section, 
life    size. 


Cross-section, 
magnified   37^    diameters. 


Tangential   Section, 
life   size. 


192 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


LIST  OF  66  COMMON  WOODS  ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR 

WEIGHT. 


1.  Shellbark  hickory. 

2.  Post  oak. 

3.  Mockernut. 

4.  Pignut. 

5.  Basket  oak. 

6.  Cherry  birch. 

7.  Slash  pine. 

8.  White  oak. 

9.  Bur  oak. 

10.  Western  white  oak. 

11.  Western  larch. 

12.  Black  locust. 

13.  Blue  beech. 

14.  Mahogany. 

15.  Cork  elm. 

16.  Blue  ash. 

17.  Black  oak. 

18.  Longleaf  pine. 

19.  Hard  maple. 

20.  Beech. 

21.  Yellow  birch. 

22.  White  ash. 

23.  Eed  oak. 

24.  White  elm. 

25.  Sour  gum. 

26.  Oregon  maple. 

27.  Black  ash. 

28.  Eed  ash. 

29.  Tamarack. 

30.  Red  maple. 

31.  Black  walnut. 

32.  Shortleaf  pine. 

33.  Canoe  birch. 


34.  Sweet  gum. 

35.  Wild  black  cherry. 

36.  Eed  birch. 

37.  Oregon  ash. 

38.  Sycamore. 

39.  Loblolly  pine. 

40.  Soft  maple. 

41.  Douglas  spruce. 

42.  Eed  cedar. 

43.  Norway  pine. 

44.  Western  yellow  pine. 

45.  Cucumber  tree. 

46.  Lawson  cypress. 

47.  Black  spruce  and  Eed 
spruce. 

48.  Bald  cypress. 

49.  Basswood. 

50.  Chestnut. 

51.  Black  willow. 

52.  Tideland  spruce. 

53.  Hemlock. 

54.  Yellow  poplar. 

55.  Bed  wood. 

56.  Butternut. 

57.  White  spruce. 

58.  Western  white  pine. 

59.  White  pine. 

60.  Western  red  cedar. 

61.  Sugar  pine. 

62.  Grand  fir. 

63.  Engelmann's  spruce. 

64.  White  cedar. 

65.  Big  tree. 


SPECIES   OF  WOODS. 


193 


LIST  OF  66  COMMON  WOODS  ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR 

STRENGTH. 


1.  Black  locust. 

2.  Yellow  birch. 

3.  Western  larch. 

4.  Cherry  birch. 

5.  Shellbark  hickory. 

6.  Slash  pine. 

7.  Longleaf  pine. 

8.  Hard  maple. 

9.  Blue  beech. 

10.  Beech. 

11.  Mockernut. 

12.  Basket  Oak. 

13.  Cork  elm. 

14.  Canoe  birch. 

15.  Pignut    hickory. 

16.  Bur  oak. 

17.  Black  oak. 

18.  Shortleaf   pine. 

19.  Soft  maple. 

20.  Mahogany. 

21.  Red  oak. 

22.  Red  birch. 

23.  White  oak. 

24.  Tamarack. 

25.  Lawson   cypress. 

26.  Loblolly  pine. 

27.  Douglas  spruce. 

28.  Western  white  oak. 

29.  Post  oak. 

30.  Red  ash. 

31.  White  ash. 

32.  Black  walnut. 

33.  White  elm. 


34.  Sour  gum. 

35.  Wild  black  cherry. 

36.  Red  maple. 

37.  Blue  ash. 

38.  Black  ash. 

39.  Norway  pine. 

40.  Western  red  cedar. 

41.  Black  spruce  and  Rod 
spruce. 

42.  White  spruce. 

43.  Red  cedar. 

44.  Hemlock. 

45.  Western  yellow  pine. 

46.  Chestnut. 

47.  Oregon  maple. 

48.  Bald  cypress. 

49.  Cucumber  tree. 

50.  Oregon  ash. 

51.  Yellow  poplar. 

52.  Sweet  gum. 

53.  Tideland   spruce. 

54.  Sycamore. 

55.  White  pine. 

56.  Western  white  pi  no. 

57.  Butternut. 

58.  Redwood. 

59.  Sugar  pine. 

60.  Basswood. 

61.  Engelmann's  spruce. 

62.  Grand  fir. 

63.  Big  tree. 

64.  White  cedar. 

65.  Black  willow. 


19-4 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


LIST  OF  66  COMMON  WOODS  ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR 

ELASTICITY. 


1.  Western  larch. 

2.  Canoe  birch  and  Yellow 
birch 

3.  Slash  pine. 

4.  Longleaf  pine. 

5.  Hard  maple. 

6.  Cherry  birch. 

7.  Shortleaf  pine. 

8.  Shellbark  hickory. 

9.  Black  locust. 

10.  Douglas  spruce. 

11.  Tamarack. 

12.  Lawson  cypress. 

13.  Beech. 

14.  Mockernut. 

15.  Blue  beech. 

16.  Norway  pine. 

17.  Loblolly  pine. 

18.  Red  oak. 

19.  Red  birch. 

20.  Soft  maple. 

21.  Red  spruce  and  Black 
spruce. 

22.  Cork  elm. 

23.  Black  walnut. 

24.  Mahogany. 

25.  Black  oak. 

26.  Western  red  cedar. 

27.  Pignut  hickory. 

28.  Bald   cypress. 

29.  White  spruce. 

30.  White  ash. 

31.  Tideland  spruce. 


32.  White  oak. 

33.  Basket  oak. 

34.  Grand  fir. 

35.  Western  white  pine. 

36.  Red  maple. 

37.  Bur  oak. 

38.  Cucumber  tree. 

39.  Yellow  poplar. 

40.  Hemlock. 

41.  Western  yellow  pine. 

42.  Black  ash. 

43.  Sycamore. 

44.  Sweet  gum. 

45.  Wild  black  cherry. 

46.  Chestnut. 

47.  White  pine. 

48.  Oregon  ash. 

49.  Bass. 

50.  Post  oak. 

51.  Sour  gum. 

52.  Butternut. 

53.  Red  ash. 

54.  Western  white  oak. 

55.  Engelmann's  spruce. 

56.  Sugar  pine. 

57.  Oregon  maple. 

58.  Blue  ash. 

59.  White  elm. 

60.  Redwood. 

61.  Red  cedar. 

62.  Big  tree. 

63.  White  cedar. 

64.  Black   willow. 


SPECIES   OF   WOODS. 


195 


LIST  OF  66  COMMON  WOODS  ARRANGED  IN  THE  ORDER  OF  THEIR 

HARDNESS. 


1.  Mahogany. 

2.  Pignut. 

3.  Mockernut. 

4.  Post  oak. 

5.  Shellbark   hickory. 

6.  Black  locust. 

7.  Hard  maple. 

8.  "Western  white  oak. 

9.  Bur  oak. 

10.  Basket  oak. 

11.  Cherry  birch. 

12.  Blue  ash. 

13.  White  oak. 

14.  Blue  beech. 

15.  Cork  elm. 

16.  Wild  black  cherry. 

17.  Red  ash. 

18.  Black  oak. 

19.  White  ash. 

20.  Sour  gum. 

21.  Black  walnut. 

22.  Beech. 

23.  Black  ash. 

24.  Slash  pine. 

25.  Soft  maple 

26.  Eed  oak. 

27.  Red  maple. 

28.  White  elm. 

29.  Oregon  ash. 

30.  Sycamore. 

31.  Oregon  maple. 

32.  Yellow  birch. 

33.  Long  leaf  pine. 


34.  Red  cedar. 

35.  Western  larch. 

36.  Sweet  gum. 

37.  Red  birch. 

38.  Short  leaf  pine. 

39.  Canoe  birch. 

40.  Tamarack. 

41.  Cucumber   tree. 

42.  Western  yellow  pine. 

43.  Loblolly  pine. 

44.  Chestnut. 

45.  Douglas  spruce. 

46.  Black  willow. 

47.  Butternut. 

48.  Norway  pine. 

49.  Yellow  poplar. 

50.  Lawson  cypress. 

51.  Hemlock. 

52.  Bald  cypress. 

53.  Sugar  pine. 

54.  Red  spruce  and  Black 
spruce. 

55.  Redwood. 

56.  Engelmann's  spruce. 

57.  White   pine. 

58.  White  spruce. 

59.  Tideland  spruce. 

60.  Western  white  cedar. 

61.  Big  tree. 

62.  White  cedar. 

63.  Western  white  pine. 

64.  Basswood. 

65.  Grand  fir. 


196 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


THE  PRINCIPAL  SPECIES  OF  WOODS. 


REFERENCES  :  * 

Sargent,  Jesup  Collection. 

Sargent,  Manual. 

Britton. 

Roth,  Timber. 

Hough,  Handbook. 

Keeler. 

Apgar. 

Mohr.     For.  Bull.,  No.  22. 

Fernow,  Forestry  Investigations. 

Lumber  Trade  Journals. 


Baterden. 

Sargent,    Silva. 

Sargent,   Forest  Trees,   10th  Census, 

Vol.  IX. 
Boulger. 

Hough,   American  Woods. 
Snow. 

Lounsberry. 

Spaulding.    For.  Butt.  No.  13. 
Sudworth.    For  Bull  No  17. 


Forest  Service  Records  of  Wholesale  Prices  of  Lumber,  List.  A. 

For  particular   trees   consult  For.    Serv.,   Bulletins   and   Circulars.      See 
For.  Service  Classified  List  of  Publications. 


•For  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  DISTEIBUTION  AND  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  NOETH 
AMEEICAN  FOEESTS. 

The  forests  of  the  United  States,  Map,  Fig.  44,  may  be  conveni- 
ently divided  into  two  great  regions,  the  Eastern  or  Atlantic  Forest, 
and  the  Western  or  Pacific  Forest.  These  are  separated  by  the  great 
treeless  plains  which  are  west  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver,  and  east  of 
the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  which  extend  from  North  Dakota  to  west- 
ern Texas.1 

The  Eastern  Forest  once  consisted  of  an  almost  unbroken  mass, 
lying  in  three  quite  distinct  regions,  (1)  the  northern  belt  of  coni- 
fers, (2)  the  southern  belt  of  conifer?,  and  (3)  the  great  deciduous 
(hardwood)  forest  lying  between  these  two. 

(1)  The  northern  belt  of  conifers  or  "North  Woods''  extended 
thru  northern  New  England  and  New  York  and  ran  south  along  the 
Appalachians.     It  reappeared  again  in  northern  Michigan,  Wiscon- 
sin and  Minnesota.     White  pine,  Fig.  45,  was  the  characteristic  tree 
in  the  eastern  part  of  this  belt,  tho  spruce  was  common,  Fig.  56,  p. 
213,  and  white  and  Norway  pine  and  hemlock  distinguished  it  in  the 
western  part.     Altho  the  more  valuable  timber,  especially  the  pine, 
has  been  cut  out,  it  still  remains  a  largely  unbroken  forest  mainly  of 
spruce,  second  growth  pine,  hemlock  and  some  hardwood. 

(2)  The  southern  pine  forest  formerly  extended  from  the  Poto- 
mac Eiver  in  a  belt  from  one  to  two  hundred  miles  wide  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  across  the   Florida  peninsula,  and  along  the  gulf  of 


1  ORIGINAL    FOREST    UEHIDXS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 

Area  Area 

Thousand  acres  Percent 

Northern    forest    158.938  8.4 

Hardwood    forest    328,183  17.3 

Southern    forest    249.660  13.1 

Rocky  Mountains  forest   155,014  8.1 

Pacific    forest    121,356  6.4 

Treeless  area    .                                                                            ..887,787  46.7 


Total  land  area    1,900,947  100.0 

197 


198 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


FOREST   DISTRIBUTION   AND  COMPOSITION. 


199 


Fig.  45.    Interior  of  Dense  White  Pine  Forest,  Cass  Lake,  Minn. 
U.  S,  Forest  Service. 


200 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Fig.  46.    Long-leaf  Pine  Forest.    Oscilla,  Georgia.    U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


FOREST   DISTRIBUTION    AND   COMPOSITION. 


201 


Mexico,  skipping  the  Mississippi  Eiver  and  reappearing  in  a  great 
forest  in  Louisiana  and  Eastern  Texas.     It  was  composed  of  almost 


Fig-.  47.    Semi-tropical  Forest,  Florida  Live  Oak,  Surrounded  by  Cabbag-e  Palmetto, 
and  Hung-  With  Spanish  Moss.    U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

pure  stands  of  pine,  the  long-leaf,  Fig.  46,  the  short-leaf,  and  the  lob- 
lolly, with  cypress  in  the  swamps  and  bottom  lands.     In  southern 


202 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Florida  the  forest  is  tropical,  Fig.  47,  like  that  of  the  West  Indies, 
and  in  southern  Texas  it  partakes  of  the  character  of  the  Mexican 
forest. 

(3)  Between  these  north  and  south  coniferous  belts,  lay  the  great 
broad-leaf  or  hardwood  forest,  Fig.  48,  which  constituted  the  greater 


Fig-.  4?.    Broad-leaf  Forest,  Protected  from  Cattle  and  Fire.    Hancock  Co.,  Indiana. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


FOREST  DISTRIBUTION  AND  COMPOSITION. 


203 


204  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

part  of  the  Eastern  Forest  and  characterized  it.  It  was  divided  into 
two  parts  by  an  irregular  northeast  and  southwest  line,  running  from 
southern  New  England  to  Missouri.  The  southeast  portion  consisted 
of  hardwoods  intermixed  with  conifers.  The  higher  ridges  of  the 
Appalachian  Eange,  really  a  leg  of  the  northern  forest,  were  occupied 
by  conifers,  mainly  spruce,  white  pine,  and  hemlock.  The  northwest 
portion  of  the  region,  particularly  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  was 
without  the  conifers.  It  was  essentially  a  mixed  forest,  largely  oak, 
with  a  variable  mixture  of  maples,  beech,  chestnut,  yellow  poplar, 
hickory,  sycamore,  elm,  and  ash,  with  birch  appearing  toward  the 
north  and  pine  toward  the  south. 

Taking  the  Eastern  Forest  as  a  whole,  its  most  distinguishing 
feature  was  the  prevalence  of  broad-leaved  trees,  so  that  it  might 
properly  be  called  a  deciduous  forest.  The  greatest  diversity  of  trees 
was  to  be  found  in  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  and  this 
region  is  still  the  source  of  the  best  hardwood  lumber. 

This  great  eastern  forest,  which  once  extended  uninterruptedly 
from  the  Atlantic  to" the  Mississippi  and  beyond,  has  now  been  largely 
lumbered  off,  particularly  thru  the  middle  or  hardwood  portion,  mak- 
ing way  for  farms  and  towns.  The  north  and  south  coniferous  belts 
are  still  mainly  unbroken,  and  are  sparsely  settled,  but  the  big  timber 
is  cut  out,  giving  place  to  poorer  trees.  This  is  particularly  true  of 
the  white  pine,  "the  king  of  American  trees,"  only  a  little  of  which, 
in  valuable  sizes,  is  left  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota.  In 
the  same  way  in  the  south,  the  long-leaf  pine,  once  the  characteristic 
tree,  is  fast  being  lumbered  out. 

The  Western  or  Pacific  forest  extends  two  great  legs,  one  down 
the  Rocky  Mountain  Eange,  and  the  other  along  the  Pacific  coast. 
Between  them  lies  the  great  treeless  alkali  plain  centering  around 
Nevada,  Fig.  49.  In  these  two  regions  coniferous  trees  have  almost 
a  monopoly.  Broad-leaved  trees  are  to  be  found  there,  along  the  river 
beds  and  in  ravines,  but  they  are  of  comparatively  little  importance. 
The  forest  is  essentially  an  evergreen  forest.  Another  marked  feature 
of  this  western  forest,  except  in  the  Puget  Sound  region,  is  that  the 
trees,  in  many  cases,  stand  far  apart,  their  crowns  not  even  touching, 
so  that  the  sun  beats  clown  and  dries  up  the  forest  floor,  Fig.  50. 
There  is  no  dense  "forest  cover"  or  canopy  as  in  the  Eastern  Forest. 
Moreover  these  western  forests  are  largely  broken  up,  covering  but  a 
part  of  the  mountains,  many  of  which  are  snow-clad,  and  interrupted 


FOREST  DISTRIBUTION"  AND  COMPOSITION. 


205 


by  bare  plains.  Along  the  creeks  there  grow  a  variety  of  hardwoods. 
It  was  never  a  continuous  forest  as  was  the  Eastern  Forest.  The  open- 
ness of  this  forest  on  the  Rockies  and  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Nevadas  is  in  marked  contrast  to  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Sierras,  where  there  are  to  be  seen  the  densest  and  most  remarkable 
woods  of  the  world,  Fig.  51.  This  is  due  to  the  peculiar  distribution 
of  the  rainfall  of  the  region.  The  precipitation  of  the  moisture  upon 
the  northwest  coast  where  the  trees  are  dripping  with  fog  a  large 


Fig. 50.     Open  Western  Forest,  Bull  Pine.    Flag-staff,  Arizona. 
U,  S.  Forest  Service. 

part  of  the  time,  is  unequaled  by  that  of  any  other  locality  on  the 
continent.  But  the  interior  of  this  region,  which  is  shut  off  by  the 
high  Sierra  Nevadas  from  the  western  winds,  has  a  very  light  and 
irregular  rainfall.  Where  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  the  forests  are  dense; 
and  where  the  rainfall  is  light,  the  trees  are  sparse. 

Along  the  Eockies  the  characteristic  trees  are  Engelmann's  spruce, 
bull  pine,  Douglas  fir,  and  lodgepole  pine.  As  one  goes  west,  the 
variety  of  trees  increases  and  becomes,  so  far  as  conifers  are  concerned, 
far  greater  than  in  the  east.  Of  109  conifers  in  the  United  States,. 


206 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


80  belong  to  the  western  forests  and  28  to  the  eastern.  The  Pacific 
forest  is  rich  in  the  possession  of  half  a  dozen  leading  species — Doug- 
las fir,  western  hemlock,  sugar  pine,  bull  pine,  cedar  and  redwood. 


Fig.  51.     Dense  Forest  of  Puget  Sound  Reg-ion,  Red  Fir  and  Red  Cedar.    Pierce  Co., 
Washing-ton.   U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

But  the  far  western  conifers  are  remarkable,  not  only  for  their 
variety,  but  still  more  for  the  density  of  their  growth,  already  men- 
tioned, and  for  their  great  size,  Fig.  52.  The  pines,  spruces  and 
hemlocks  of  the  Puget  Sound  region  make  eastern  trees  look  small, 


FOREST  DISTRIBUTION  AND  COMPOSITION. 


207 


and  both  the  red  fir  and  the  redwood  often  grow  to  be  over  250  feet 
high,  and  yield  100,000  feet,  B.M.,  to  the  acre  as  against  10,000  feet, 
B.M.,  of  good  spruce  in  Maine.  The  redwood,  Fig.  53,  occupies  a 


Fig-.  52.     Virgin  Forest  of  Red  Fir,  Red  Cedar,  Western  Hemlock,  and  Oregon 
Maple.     Ashford,  Washing-ton.  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

belt  some  twenty  miles  wide  along  the  coast  from  southern  Oregon  to 
a  point  not  far  north  of  San  Francisco  and  grows  even  taller  than  the 
famous  big  trees.  The  big  trees  are  the  largest  known  trees  in  diam- 
eter, occasionally  reaching  in  that  measurement  35  feet. 


208 


WOOD  AXU  FOREST. 


The  big  tree,  Fig.  54,  occurs  exclusively  in  groves,  which,  however, 
are  not  pure,  but  are  scattered  among  a  much  larger  number  of  trees 
of  other  kinds. 


.  53.     Redwood  Forest.     Santa  Cruz  Co.,  Calif.   U,  S.  Forest  Service. 


The  great  and  unsurpassed  Puget  Sound  forest  is  destined  to  be 
before  long  the  center  of  the  lumber  trade  of  this  country. 

These  two  great  forests  of  the  east  and  the  west  both  run  north- 
ward into  British  America,  and  are  there  united  in  a  broad  belt  of 


FOREST  DISTRIBUTION  AXD  COMPOSITION. 


209 


subarctic  forest  which  extends  across  the  continent.  At  the  far  north 
it  is  characterized  by  the  white  spruce  and  aspen.  The  forest  is 
open,  stunted,  and  of  no  economic  value. 


Taking  all  the  genera  and  species  together,  there  is  a  far  greater 
variety  in  the  eastern  than  in  the  western  forests.  A  considerable 
number  of  genera,  perhaps  a  third  of  the  total,  grow  within  both 
regions,  but  the  species  having  continental  range  are  few.  They  are 


210  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

the  following :  Larch  (Larix  laricina),  white  spruce  (Picea  canaden- 
sis),  dwarf  juniper  (Juniperus  communis),  black  willow  (Salix 
nigra),  almond  leaf  willow  (Salix  amygdaloides),  long  leaf  willow 
(Salix  fluviatilis) ,  aspen  (Populus  tremuloides) ,  balm  of  Gilead 
(Populus  balsamifera) ,  and  hackberry  (Celtis  occidentalis) . 


THE   DISTRIBUTION    AND    COMPOSITION    OF    NORTH    AMERICAN    FORESTS. 
REFERENCES : * 

Sargent,  Forest  Trees.  Intro,  pp.  Shaler,    I,   pp.    489-498. 

3-10.  Fernow,  For.  Inves.,  pp.   45-51. 

Bruncken,  pp.  5-16.  Fernow,    Economics,    pp.    331-308. 
Roth,  First  Book,  pp.  209-212. 


*For  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


ClIAl'lER    V. 

THE  FOREST  OBGANISM. 

The  forest  is  much  more  than  an  assemblage  of  different  trees,  it 
is  an  organism;  that  is,  the  trees  that  compose  it  have  a  vital  rela- 
tion to  each  other.  It  may  almost  be  said  to  have  a  life  of  its  own, 
since  it  has  a  soil  and  a  climate,  largely  of  its  own  making. 

Without  these  conditions,  and  without  the  help  and  hindrance 
which  forest  trees  give  to  each  other,  these  trees  would  not  have  their 
present  characteristics,  either  in  shape,  habits  of  growth  or  nature 
of  wood  grain.  Indeed,  some  of  them  could  not  live  at  all. 

Since  by  far  the  greater  number  of  timber  trees  grow  in  the  for- 
est, in  order  to  understand  the  facts  about  trees  and  woods,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  know  something  about  the  conditions  of  forest  life. 

A  tree  is  made  up  of  three  distinct  parts:  (1)  the  roots  which 
anchor  it  in  the  ground,  and  draw  its  nourishment  from  the  moist 
soil;  (2)  the  trunk,  or  bole,  or  stem,  which  carries  the  weight  of  the 
branches  and  leaves,  and  conveys  the  nourishment  to  and  from  the 
leaves;  (3)  the  crown,  composed  of  the  leaves,  the  branches  on  which 
they  hang,  and  the  buds  at  the  ends  of  the  branches.  As  trees  stand 
together  in  the  forest,  their  united  crowns  make  a  soit  of  canopy  or 
cover,  Fig.  55,  which,  more  than  anything,  determines  the  factors 
affecting  forest  life,  viz.,  the  soil,  the  temperature,  the  moisture,  and 
most  important  of  all,  the  light. 

On  the  other  hand,  every  species  of  tree  has  its  own  requirements 
in  respect  to  these  very  factors  of  temperature, — moisture,  soil  and 
light.  These  are  called  its  silvical  characteris'ics. 

SOIL. 

Some  trees,  as  black  walnut,  flourish  on  good  soil,  supplanting 
others  because  they  are  better  able  to  make  use  of  the  richness  of  the 
soil;  while  some  trees  occupy  poor  soil  because  they  alone  are  able  to 
live  there  at  all.  Spruce,  Fig.  56,  will  grow  in  the  north  woods  on 
such  poor  soil  that  it  has  no  competitors,  and  birches,  too,  will  grow 

211 


212 


WOOD  AXD  FOREST. 


Fig-.  55.    The  Forest  Cover.     Spruce  Forest,  Bavaria,  Germany. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


THE   FOREST   ORGANISM. 


213 


anywhere  in  the  north  woods.  In  general,  it  is  true  that  mixed  for- 
ests, Fig.  57,  i.  e.,  those  having  a  variety  of  species,  grow  on  good 
loamy  soil.  The  great  central,  deciduous  Atlantic  Forest  grew  on  such 
soil  until  it  was  removed  to  make  room  for  farms.  On  the  other  hand, 
pure  stands — i.  e.,  forests  made  up  of  single  varieties — of  pine  occupy 
poor  sandy  soil.  Within  a  distance  of  a  few  yards  in  the  midst  of  a 
pure  stand  of  pine  in 
the  south,  a  change  in 
the  soil  will  produce  a 
dense  mixed  growth  of 
broad-leaves  and  coni- 
fers. 

The  soil  in  the  for- 
est is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  forest  it- 
self. In  addition  to 
the  earth,  it  is  com- 
posed of  the  fallen  and 
decayed  leaves  and 
twigs  and  tree  trunks, 
altogether  called  the 
forest  floor.  It  is 
spongy  and  hence  has 
the  ability  to  retain 
moisture,  a  fact  of 
great  importance  to 

tllO    forest.  Fiff-  56-  Virgin  Stand  of  Red  Spruce.  White 

Mountains,  New  Hampshire.     U.  S,  Forest 
Service. 

MOISTURE. 

Some  trees,  as  black  ash  and  cypress,  Fig.  58,  and  cotton  gum, 
Fig.  59,  grow  naturally  only  in  moist  places;  some,  as  the  pinon  and 
mesquite,  a  kind  of  locust,  grow  only  in  dry  places;  while  others,  as 
the  jumper  and  Douglas  fir,  adapt  themselves  to  either.  Both  excess- 
ively wet  and  dry  soils  tend  to  diminish  the  number  of  kinds  of  trees. 
In  many  instances  the  demand  for  water  controls  the  distribution  alto- 
gether. In  the  Puget  Sound  region,  where  there  is  a  heavy  rain-fall, 
the  densest  forests  in  the  world  are  found,  whereas  on  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  same  mountains,  altho  the  soil  is  not  essentially  different, 
there  are  very  few  trees,  because  of  the  constant  drouth. 


214 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 
TEMPERATURE. 


The  fact  that  some  trees,  as  paper  birch  and  white  spruce,  grow 
only  in  cold  regions,  and  some,  as  rubber  trees  and  cypress,  only  in 
the  tropics,  is  commonplace ;  but  a  fact  not  so  well  known  is  that  it 
is  not  the  average  temperature,  but  the  extremes  which  largely  deter- 


Fig-.  57.    Typical  Mixed  Forest,— Red  Spruce,  Hemlock,  White  Ash, 

Yellow  Birch,  Balsam  Fir,  and  Red  Maple.     Raquette  Lake,  New 

York.   U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

mine  the  habitat  of  trees  of  different  kinds.  Trees  which  would  not 
live  at  all  where  there  is  frost,  might  flourish  well  in  a  region  where 
the  average  temperature  was  considerably  lower.  On  the  other  hand, 
provided  the  growing  season  is  long  enough  for  the  species,  there  is 
no  place  on  earth  too  cold  for  trees  to  live.  Fig.  GO. 


THE   FOREST   ORGANISM. 


215 


Fig-.  58.    Cypress  and  Cypress  "Knees."    Jasper  Co.,  Texas. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service, 


Fig-.  59.    Cotton  Ciums,  Showing-  Buttresses.    St.  Francis 
River,  Arkansas.     U.  S,  Forest  Service, 


216 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


In  general,  cold  affects  the  forest  just  as  poor  soil  and  drought  do, 
simplifying  its  composition  and  stunting  its  growth.  In  Canada  there 
are  only  a  few  kinds  of  trees,  of  which  the  hardwoods  are  stunted ; 
south  of  the  Great  Lakes,  there  is  a  great  variety  of  large  trees; 
farther  south  in  the  southern  Appalachian  region,  there  is  a  still 
greater  variety,  and  the  trees  are  just  as  large ;  and  still  farther  south 

in  tropical  Florida,  there  is 
the  greatest  variety  of  all. 
The  slopes  of  a  high  moun- 
tain furnish  an  illustration 
of  the  effect  of  temperature. 
In  ascending  it,  one  may 
pass  from  a  tropical  forest 
at  the  base,  thru  a  belt 
of  evergreen,  broad-leaved 
trees,  then  thru  a  belt  of  de- 
ciduous broad-leaved  trees, 
then  thru  a  belt  of  conifers 
and  up  to  the  timber  line 
where  tree  life  ceases.  Figs. 
61,  and  62. 

LIGHT. 

More  than  by  any  other 
factor,  the  growth  of  trees 
in  a  forest  is  determined  by 
the  effect  of  light.  All 
trees  need  light  sooner  or 
later,  but  some  trees  have 
much  more  ability  than 

others  to  grow  in  the  shade  when  young.  Such  trees,  of  which  maple 
and  spruce  are  examples,  are  called  tolerant,  while  others,  for  in- 
stance, larch,  which  will  endure  only  a  comparatively  thin  cover  or 
none  at  all,  are  called  intolerant.  The  leaves  of  to^rant  trees  endure 
shade  well,  so  that  their  inner  and  lower  leaves  flourish  under  the 
shadow  of  their  upper  and  outer  leaves,  with  the  result  that  the  whole 
tree,  as  beech  and  maple,  makes  a  dense  shadow;  whereas  the  leaves 
of  intolerant  trees  are  either  sparse,  as  in  the  larch,  or  are  so  hung 
that  the  light  sifts  thru  them,  as  in  poplar  and  oak.  The  spruces  and 


Fig-.  60.    Northern  Forest,— Young-  Spruce 

Growing-  Under  Yellow  Birch.    Santa  Clara, 

New  York.   U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


THE   FOREST   ORGANISM. 


217 


Fig.  61.  Mixed  Hardwoods  on  Lower  Levels.   Spruce  and  Balsam  Dominate 

on  Higher  Elevations.     Mt.  Mclntyre,  Adirondack  Mountains,  New  York. 

U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


Fig.  62 


Scrub  Growth  on  Mountain  Top.    Mt.  Webster, 
New  Hampshire.  U.  S.  Forest  Serzice. 


218 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


balsam  fir  have  the  remarkable  power  of  growing  slowly  under  heavy 
shade  for  many  years,  and  then  of  growing  vigorously  when  the  light 
is  let  in  by  the  fall  of  their  overshadowing  neighbors.  This  can 
plainly  be  seen  in  the  cross-section  of  balsam  fir,  Fig.  63,  where  the 
narrow  annual  rings  of  the  early  growth,  are  followed  by  the  wider 
ones  of  later  growth.  A  common  sight  in  the  dense  woods  is  the 

maple  sending  up  a 
long,  spindly  stem  thru 
the  trees  about  it  and 
having  at  its  top  a  lit- 
tle tuft  of  leaves,  Fig. 
64.  By  so  doing  it- 
survives.  The  fact  that 
a  tree  can  grow  with- 
out shade  often  deter- 
mines its  possession  of 
a  burnt-over  tract.  The 
order  in  the  Xorth 
Woods  after  a  fire  is 
commonly ,  first,  a 
growth  of  fire  weed, 
then  -raspberries  or 
blackberries,  then  as- 
pen, a  very  intolerant 
tree  whose  light  shade 
in  turn  permits  under 

it  the  growth  of  the  spruce,  to  which  it  is  a  "nurse,"  Fig.  65.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  all  seedling  conifers  require  some  shade 
the  first  two  years,  while  hardwoods  in  temperate  climates,  as  a  rule, 
do  not.  .^: 

This  matter  of  tolerance  has  also  much  to  do  with  the  branching 
of  trees.  The  leaves  on  the  lower  branches  of  an  intolerant  tree  will 
not  thrive,  with  the  result  that  those  branches  die  and  later  drop  off. 
This  is  called  "cleaning,"  or  natural  pruning.  Intolerant  trees,  like 
aspen  and  tulip,  Fig.  66,  clean  themselves  well  and-  hence  grow  with 
long,  straight  boles,  while  tolerant  trees,  like  spruce  and  fir,  retain 
their  branches  longer. 

The  distribution  of  a  species  may  also  be  determined  by  geograph- 
ical barriers,  like  mountain  ranges  and  oceans.  This  is  why  the 


Fig-.  63.  Cross-section  of  Balsam  Fir, 
Showing- Fast  Growth  After  Years  of 
Suppression.  Notice  the  width  of  the 
annual  ring's  in  later  age  compared 
with  early.  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


THE   FOREST   ORGANISM. 


219 


Fig.  64.     Tolerant  Maple.    The  trees  are  too 
slender  to  stand  alone.    U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


Fig-.  65.    Intolerant  Aspen,  a  "nurse"  of 
Tolerant  Spruce.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


220  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

western  forests  differ  radically  from  the  eastern  forests  and  why  the 
forest  of  Australasia  is  sharply  distinct  from  any  other  forest  in  the 
world. 

Any  one  or  several  of  these  factors,  soil,  moisture,  heat,  and  light, 
may  be  the  determining  factor  in  the  make-up  of  a  forest,  or  it  may 
be  that  a  particular  tree  may  survive,  because  of  a  faster  rate  of 
growth,  thus  enabling  it  to  overtop  its  fellows  and  cut  off  their  light. 
The  struggle  for  survival  is  constant,  and  that  tree  survives  which  can 
take  the  best  advantage  of  the  existent  conditions. 

Besides  these  topographical  and  climatic  factors  which  help  deter- 
mine the  distribution  of  trees,  a  very  important  factor  is  the  historical 
one.  For  example,  the  only  reason  by  which  the  location  of  the  few 
isolated  groves  of  big  trees  in  California  can  be  accounted  for  is  the 
rise  and  fall  of  glacial  sheets,  which  left  them,  as  it  were,  islands 
stranded  in  a  sea  of  ice.  As  the  glaciers  retreated,  the  region  gradu- 
ally became  re-forested,  those  trees  coming  up  first  which  were  best 
able  to  take  advantage  of  the  conditions,  whether  due  to  the  character 
of  their  seeds,  their  tolerance,  their  endurance  of  moisture  or  what- 
ever. This  process  is  still  going  on  and  hardwoods  are  probably  gain- 
ing ground. 

Besides  these  external  factors  which  determine  the  composition 
and  organic  life  of  the  forest,  the  trees  themselves  furnish  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  their  methods  of  reproduction.  These,  in  general,  are 
two,  (1)  by  sprouts,  and  (2)  by  seeds. 

(1)  Most  conifers  have  no  power  of  sprouting.     The  chief  ex- 
ceptions are  pitch  pine  and,  to  a  remarkable  degree,  the  redwood, 
Fig.  67.     This  power,  however,  is  common  in  broad-leaved  trees,  as 
may  be  seen  after  a  fire  has  swept  thru  second  growth,  hardwood 
timber.  Alfho  all  the  young  trees  are  killed  down  to  the  ground,  the 
young  sprouts  spring  up  from  the  still  living  roots.     This  may  hap- 
pen repeatedly.     Coppice  woods,  as  of  chestnut  and  oak,  which  sprout 
with  great  freedom,  are  the  result  of  this  ability.     The  wood  is  poor 
so  that  it  is  chiefly  used  for  fuel. 

(2)  Most  trees,  however,  are  reproduced  by  seeds.     Trees  yield 
these  in  great  abundance,   to  provide  for  waste, — nature's  method. 
Many  seeds  never  ripen,  many  perish,  many  are  eaten  by  animals, 
many  fall  on  barren  ground  or  rocks,  and  many  sprout,  only  to  die. 
The  weight  of  seeds  has  much  to  do  with  their  distribution.     Heavy 
seeds  like  acorns,  chestnuts,  hickory  and  other  nuts,  grow  where  they 


THE  FOREST  ORGANISM. 


221 


Fig-.  66.    Intolerant  Tulip.    Notice  the  long-,  straight  boles.   U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


222 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


fall,  unless  carried  down  hill  by  gravity  or  by  water,  or  scattered  by 
birds  and  squirrels. 

Trees  with  winged  seeds,  however,  Fig.  68,  as  bass,  maple  and 
pine,  or  with  light  seeds,  as  poplar,  often  have  their  seeds  carried  by 
the  wind  to  great  distances. 

Again  some  trees,  as  spruce,  are  very  fertile,  while  others,  like 
beech,  have  only  occasional  seed-bearing  seasons,  once  in  three  or 


Fig.  67.     Sprouting-  Redwood  Stumps.     Glen  Blair,  Calif. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


four  years.  Willow  seeds  lose  their  power  of  germination  in  a  few 
days,  and  hence,  unless  they  soon  reach  ground  where  there  is  plenty 
of  moisture,  they  die.  This  is  why  they  grow  mostly  along  water 
courses.  On  the  other  hand,  black  locust  pods  and  the  cones  of  some 
pines  keep  their  seeds  perfect  for  many  years,  often  until  a  fire  bursts 
them  open,  and  so  they  live  at  the  expense  of  their  competitors. 


THE  FOREST  ORGANISM. 


223 


Fig-.  68.    Winged  Seeds.    1,  Bass  wood; 

2,  Box-elder;  3,  Elm;  4,  Fir;  5,6,7,8, 

Pines.  U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


It  is  such  facts  as  these  that 
help  to  account  for  some  of  the 
facts  of  forest  composition, — 
why  in  one  place  at  one  time 
there  is  a  growth  of  aspens,  at 
another  time  pines,  at  still  an- 
other oaks;  and  why  beeches 
spring  up  one  year  and  not  an- 
other. That  red  cedars  grow 
in  avenues  along  fences,  is  ex- 
plained by  the  fact  that  the 
seeds  are  dropped  there  by 
birds,  Fig.  69. 

The  fact  that  conifers,  as 
the  longleaf  pine,  Fig.  46,  p. 
200,  and  spruce,  Fig.  55,  p.  212, 

are  more  apt  to  grow  in  pure  stands  than  broad-leaved  trees,  is  largely 
accounted  for  by  their  winged  seeds;  whereas  the  broad-leaved  trees 
grow  mostly  in  mixed  stands  because  their  heavy  seeds  are  not  plenti- 

tifully  and  widely  scattered.  This 
is  a  rule  not  without  exceptions, 
for  beech  sometimes  covers  a 
whole  mountain  side,  as  Slide 
Mountain  in  the  Catskills,  and 
aspens  come  in  over  a  wide 
area  after  a  fire;  but  later 
other  trees  creep  in  until  at 
length  it  becomes  a  mixed 
forest. 

The  essential  facts  of  the 
relation  of  trees  to  each  other 
in  the  forest  has  been  clearly 
stated  by  Gifford  Pinchot 
thus  :* 

The  history  of  the  life  of 
a  forest  is  a  story  of  the  help 
and  harm  which  trees  receive 
from  one  another.  On  one  side 
every  tree  is  engaged  in  a  re- 


Fig-.  69.  Red  Cedar  Avenue.    Seeds  dropped 

by  birds  which  perched  on  the  fences. 

Indiana.    U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


1  Gifford  Pinchot,  Primer  of  Forestry,  p.  44. 


224 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


lentless  struggle  against  its  neighbors  for  light,  water  and  food,  the  three 
things  trees  need  most.  On  the  other  side  each  tree  is  constantly  working 
with  all  its  neighbors,  even  those  which  stand  at  some  distance,  to  bring 
about  the  best  condition  of  the  soil  and  air  for  the  growth  and  fighting  power 
^f  every  other  tree. 

The  trees  in  a  forest  help  each  other  by  enriching  the  soil  in 
which  they  stand  with  their  fallen  leaves  and  twigs,  which  are  not 
quickly  blown  or  washed  away  as  are  those  under  a  tree  in  the  open. 
This  collection  of  "duff"  or  "the  forest  floor"  retains  the  moisture 
about  their  roots,  and  this  moist  mass  tends  to  keep  the  temperature 
of  the  forest  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in  summer.  The  forest 
cover,  Fig.  55,  p.  212,  consisting  largely  of  foliage,  has  the  same  effect, 


.  70.    Shallow  Roots  of  Hemlock.    Bronx  Park, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 


and  in  addition  protects  the  bark,  the  roots,  and  the  seedlings  of  the 
trees  from  the  direct  and  continuous  hot  rays  of  the  sun.  Without 
the  shade  of  the  leaves,  many  trees,  as  white  pine,  would  quickly  die, 
as  may  readily  be  seen  by  transplanting  them  to  the  open.  The  mass 
of  standing  trees  tempers  the  force  of  the  wind,  which  might  over- 
throw some  of  them,  and  hinders  the  drying  up  of  the  duff. 

But  trees  hinder  as  well  as  help  each  other.  There  is  a  constant 
struggle  between  them  for  nourishment  and  light.  To  get  food  and 
water,  some  trees,  as  spruces  and  hemlocks,  Fig.  70,  spread  their  roots 
out  flat;  others,  as  oak  and  pine,  send  down  a  deep  tap  root.  Those 
succeed  in  any  environment  that  find  the  nourishment  they  need. 
Still  more  evident  is  the  struggle  for  light  and  air.  However  well  a 


THE   FOREST   ORGANISM. 


225 


tree  is  nourished  thru  its  roots,  unless  its  leaves  have  an  abundance 
of  light  and  air  it  will  not  thrive  and  make  wood. 

Even  the  trees  most  tolerant  of  shade  in  youth,  like  spruce,  must 
have  light  later  or  perish,  and  hence  in  a  forest  there  is  the  constant 
upward  reach.  This  produces 
the  characteristic  "long-bodied" 
trunk  of  the  forest  tree,  Fig.  71, 
in  contrast  to  the  "short-bodied" 
tree  of  the  open,  where  the 
branches  reach  out  in  all  direc- 
tions, Fig.  72.  In  this  constant 
struggle  for  existence  is  involved 
the  persistent  attempt  of  scat- 
tered seeds  to  sprout  whenever 
there  is  an  opening.  The  result 
is  that  a  typical  forest  is  one  in 
which  all  sizes  and  ages  of  trees 
grow  together.  Scattered  among 
these  are  bushes  and  scrubby 
trees,  called  "forest  weeds,"  such 
as  mountain  maple  and  dogwood, 
Fig.  80,  p.  234,  which  do  not 
produce  timber. 

By  foresters  the  trees  them- 
selves are  classified  according  to 
their  size  into : 

Seedlings,  less  than  3'  high, 
Saplings, 

Small,  3'-10'  high. 

Large,    4"    in    diameter,    at 

breast  height   (4'  6"). 
Poles, 

Small,  4"-8"  in  diameter,  at 

breast  height. 
Large,    8"-12"    in    diameter, 

at  breast  height. 

Standards,  l'-2'  in  diameter,  at  breast  height. 
Veterans,  over  2'  in  diameter  at  breast  height. 


Fig.  71.     Long- bodied  White  Oak  of  the 
Forest.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


226 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Every  age  has  its  own  dangers.  Many  seeds  never  germinate, 
many  seedlings  perish  because  they  do  not  reach  soil,  or  are  killed  by 
too  much  or  too  little  moisture,  or  by  heat  or  cold,  or  shade.  At  the 
sapling  age,  the  side  branches  begin  to  interfere  with  those  of  other 
saplings.  Buds  are  bruised  and  lower  branches  broken  by  thrashing 
in  the  wind,  and  their  leaves  have  less  light.  Only  the  upper  branches 
have  room  and  light,  and  they  flourish  at  the  expense  of  lower  ones, 
which  gradually  die  and  are  thus  pruned  off.  Some  trees  naturally 
grow  faster  than  others,  and  they  attain  additional  light  and  room  to 

spread  laterally,  thus  overtop- 
ping others  which  are  sup- 
pressed and  finally  killed, 
beaten  in  the  race  for  life. 

If  the  growth  should  re- 
main about  even  so  that  the 
trees  grew  densely  packed  to- 
gether, the  whole  group  would 
be  likely  to  be  of  a  poorer  qual- 
ity, but  ordinarily  the  few  out- 
grow the  many  and  they  are 
called  dominant  trees.  Even 
then,  they  still  have  to  struggle 
against  their  neighbors,  and  at 
this,  the  large  sapling  stage, 
many  perish,  and  of  those  that 
survive  there  are  great  differ- 
ences in  size.  Trees  make  their 
most  rapid  growth  in  height, 

and  lay  on  the  widest  yearly  "rings,"  at  the  large  sapling  and  small 
pole  age,  Fig.  114,  p.  263.  It  is  at  this  stage,  too,  if  the  growth  is  at 
all  dense,  that  the  young  trees  (poles)  clean  themselves  most  thoroly 
of  their  branches.  The  growth  in  diameter  continues  to  the  end 
of  the  tree's  life,  long  after  the  height  growth  has  ceased. 

When  trees  become  "standards,"  and  reach  the  limit  of  height 
growth,  thru  their  inability  to  raise  water  to  their  tops,  their 
branches  must  perforce  grow  sidewise,  or  not  at  all.  The  struggle 
for  life  thus  takes  a  new  form. 

How  trees  are  able  to  raise  water  as  high  as  they  do  is  still  un- 
explained, but  we  know  that  the  chief  reason  why  some  trees  grow 


Jngv74.    oiiort- bodied  w  hite  Oak  of  the 
Open.     Fort  Lee,  N.  J. 


THE   FOREST   ORGANISM. 


227 


taller  than  others,  is  due  to  their  ability  to  raise  water.     The  most 
remarkable  in  this  respect  are  the  California  redwoods,  the  big  trees, 
and     certain     eucalypts    in    Australia. 
This  inability  of  trees  to  grow  above  a 
certain  height  results  in  a  flattening  of 
the  crown,   Fig.   73,  and  at  this  stage, 
the  trees  struggle  against  each  other  by 
crowding  at  the  side. 

Inasmuch  as  trees  grow  more  sen- 
sitive to  shade  with  advancing  age,  the 
taller  trees  have  the  advantage.  Each 
survivor  is  one  of  a  thousand,  and  has 
outlived  the  others  because  it  is  best 
fitted  for  the  place. 

This  fact  has  its  effect  upon  the  next 
generation,  because  it  is  these  dominant 
surviving  trees  which  bear  seed  most 
abundantly.  After  the  tree  has  finished 
growing  in  height  and  diameter  most 
vigorously — the  pole  stage — and  proved 
to  be  fitted  for  the  place,  its  energy  is 
largely  spent  in  raising  seed.  As  this 
process  goes  on  generation  after  genera- 
tion, only  the  best  coming  to  maturity 
in  each,  the  poorer  sorts  are  sifted  out, 
and  each  region  and  continent  has 
those  species  best  fitted  to  meet  the  con- 
ditions of  life  there. 

This  is  the  reason  why  exotics  are 
very  likely  to  be  sensitive  and  perhaps 
succumb  to  influences  to  which  native 
trees  are  immune. 

Standards  and  veterans  are  the  sur- 
vivors of  all  the  lower  stages,  each  of 
which  has  had  its  especial  dangers.  If 
left  alone,  the  tree  gradually  dies  and 
at  last  falls  and  decays,  adding  somewhat  to  the  fertility  of  the  forest 
soil.  From  the  point  of  view  of  human  use,  it  would  far  better 
have  been  cut  when  ripe  and  turned  into  lumber.  It  is  a  mistake  to 


r.  73.    Flattened  Crown  of 
Red  Pine.  U.S. Forest  Service. 


228  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

suppose  that  the  natural  virgin  forest  is  the  best  possible  forest,  and 
that  it  should  therefore  be  left  alone.  In  the  National  Forests  the 
ripe  lumber  is  sold  and  a  considerable  revenue  is  thus  available.  But 
nature's  way  with  the  dead  tree  is  to  use  it  to  produce  more  life. 
How  she  does  so  will  be  explained  in  the  next  chapter,  on  the  enemies 
of  the  forest. 


THE   FOREST  ORGANISM. 
REFERENCES  :  * 

Pinchot,  For.  Bull.  No.  24,  I,  pp.  25-G6. 
Bruncken,  pp.  13-31 
For.  Circ.  No.  36,  p.  8. 
Fernow,   Economics,  pp.  140-164. 


*For  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
NATURAL  ENEMIES  OF  THE  FOREST. 

The  natural  enemies  of  the  forest — as  distinct  from  its  human 
enemies — fall  into  three  groups:  (1)  Meteorological,  (2)  Vege- 
table, (3)  Animal. 

METEOROLOGICAL   FORCES. 

Wind.  ''Windfalls"  are  not  an  uncommon  sight  in  any  forest. 
Frequently  only  small  areas  arc  blown  down,  one  large  tree  upsetting 
a  few  others,  or  again  a  vast  region  is  destroyed  by  great  storms, 


Fig-.  74.     Effect  of  Wind,  July ,  1902,  Cass  County,  Minnesota. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service, 

tig..  74.  An  area  of  many  square  miles  in  Florida  covered  with 
long-leaf  pine  was  thus  destroyed  several  years  ago.  The  "slash" 
thus  formed,  when  well  dried,  is  particularly  liable  to  catch  fire  and 
burn  furiously.  Windfalls  are  especially  common  among  shallow- 
Booted  trees,  as  hemlock,  basswood  and  spruce,  on  sandy  soil  and  on 

229 


230 


WOOD  AND  FOREST 


Fig.  75.    Sand-dunes,  Cape  May,  New  Jersey.    U.S.  Forest  Service. 


Fig-.  76.    Sand-dune.    Oregon.     U.S.  Forest  Service. 


NATURAL  ENEMIES   OF   THE   FOREST.  231 

shallow  soil  underlaid  with  solid  stone,  especially  where  open  spaces 
give  the  wind  free  sweep.  It  follows  that  an  unbroken  forest  is  a 
great  protection  to  itself.  The  only  precautions  against  wind  there- 
fore, that  can  be  taken  by  the  forester,  are  to  keep  the  forest  unbro- 
ken by  selecting  only  the  larger  trees  for  felling  or  to  cut  down  a 
given  tract  by  beginning  at  the  side  opposite  the  direction  of  pre- 
vailing storms  and  working  toward  them. 

In  sandy  regions,  the  wind  does  immense  harm  by  blowing  the 
sand  to  and  fro  in  constantly  shifting  dunes,  Figs.  75  and  76.  These 
dunes  occupy  long  stretches  of  the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan.  Such  dunes  have  been  estimated  to  cover  20,000 
square  miles  of  Europe.  Along  the  Bay  of  Biscay  in  France,  the 
sand  dunes  formerly  drifted  in  ridges  along  the  shore,  damming  up 
the  streams  and  converting  what  was  once  a  forest  into  a  pestilential 
marsh.  This  region  has  been  reclaimed  at  great  expense  by  building 
fences  along  the  shore  to  break  the  wind  and  thus  keep  the  moving 
sand  within  limits.  In  this  way  a  million  acres  of  productive  forest 
have  been  obtained. 

On  the  other  hand  winds  are  beneficial  to  the  forest  in  scattering 
seeds,  weeding  out  weak  trees,  and  developing  strength  in  tree  trunks. 

Drouth  both  injures  the  foliage  of  trees  and  causes  defects  in  the 
grain  of  wood,  the  latter  appearing  as  "false  rings."  These  arise 
from  the  effort 
of  the  tree  to 
resume  growth 
when  the  water 
supply  is  re- 
stored. See  p.  19. 

Water.     Cer- 
tain   trees    have 
become      accus- 
tomed   tO     living  Fijr.  77.  ,  Effect  of  Flooding.    First  Cotin^cticuT 
in     much     Water  Lake,  New  Hampshire.      17.  S.  forest  Service. 

as  cedar  and  cypress  have  in  swamps,  and  certain  trees  have  become 
accustomed  to  periodical  floods,  but  other  trees  are  killed  by  much 
water.  So  when  lumbermen  make  a  pond  which  overflows  forest 
land,  the  trees  soon  die,  Fig.  77. 

Lightning  frequently  blasts  single  trees,  and  in  dry  seasons  may 
set  fire  to  forests.  This  is  a  much  more  important  factor  in  the  west 


232 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


than  in  the  east, — in  the  Rockies,  for  instance,  where  there  are  elec- 
trical storms  without  rain. 

Fires  will  be  considered  later  under  man's  relation  to  the  forest. 

Snow  and  ice  often  bring  serious  harm  to  saplings  by  perma- 
nently bending  them  over,  Fig.  78,  or  by  breaking  off  tops  and 
branches. 

Frost  kills  young  plants;  and  sudden  changes  in  temperature 
seriously  affect  grown  timber,  producing  "frost  checks"  and  "wind 


Fig-.  78.    Slim  Trees  Kent  Over  by  Snow;  Stouter  Trees  Unharmed.    Zurich, 
Switzerland.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

shakes."  When  there  is  a  sudden  fall  in  temperature,  the  outside 
layers  of  the  tree,  which  are  full  of  sap,  contract  more  rapidly  than 
the  inner  portions,  with  the  result  that  the  tree  splits  with  a  sudden 
pistol-like  report,  the  check  running  radially  up  and  down  the  tree. 
This  is  called  a  "frost  check"  or  "star  shake,"  Fig.  41.a,  p.  47,  and 
such  wounds  rarely  heal,  Fig.  79. 

On  the  other  hand  when  the  temperature  rapidly  rises,  the  outside 
layers  of  the  tree  expand  so  much  more  rapidly  than  the  inside,  that 
they  separate  with  a  dull  muffled  chug,  the  check  extending  in  a  cir- 


NATURAL  ENEMIES   OF   THE    FOREST. 


233 


cular  direction  following  the  annual  rings.  Such  checks  are  often 
called  "wind  shakes"  and  "cup  shakes/'  Fig.  41. c,  p.  47.  These  in- 
juries are  found  in  regions  where  sudden  changes  of  temperature 
occur,  rather  than  in  the  tropics  or  in  very  cold  climates. 


VEGETABLE   ENEMIES. 

Under  this  head  may  be  classed.,  in  addition  to  fungi,  a  number 
of  unrelated  plants,  including  such  as:  moosewood  and  dogwood,,  Fig. 
80,  which  crowd  out  young  trees;  vines,  like  bitter-sweet,  which  wind 
about  trees  and  often  choke  them 
by    pressure,    cutting    thru    the 
bark       and      cambium ;       sapro- 
phytes,  which   smother   the   foli- 
age   of   trees,   of   which    Spanish 
moss,  Fig.  47,  p.  201,  is  an  ex- 
ample;    and    finally    such    para- 
sites    as     the    mistletoes,    which 
weaken  and  deform  the  trees. 

The  most  important  of  the 
vegetable  enemies  of  trees  are 
fungi.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that,  without  the  decay 
produced  by  them,  the  fallen 
trees  would  soon  cover  the  ground, 
and  prevent  any  new  growth,  thus 
destroying  the  natural  forest. 

Every  tree,  as  has  been  noted 
(p.  17),  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
one  part,  including  leaves,  young 
branches,  roots  and  sap-wood,  living,  and  the  other  part,  namely,  the 
heart-wood,  practically  dead. 

Fungi  that  attack  the  live  parts  of  a  tree  are  called  parasites, 
while  those  that  live  on  dead  trunks  and  branches  are  designated  as 
saprophytes.  The  line,  however,  between  these  two  classes  of  fungi 
is  not  well  defined,  since  some  parasites  live  on  both  living  and  dead 
wood.  The  parasites  are  of  first  importance,  for,  since  they  kill  many 
wees,  they  control  to  a  large  extent  the  supply  of  living  timber. 


Fig-.  79.    Contraction  Frost  Check. 
U.  S.  Forest  Se.rnce* 


234 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Nearly  all  parasitic  fungi  have  two  portions,  an  external  fruiting 
portion  which  bears  the  spores — which  correspond  to  the  seeds  of 
flowering  plants — and  an  internal  portion  consisting  of  a  tangle  of 
threads  or  filaments,  which  ramify  the  tissues  of  the  tree  and  whose 
function  is  to  absorb  nutriment  for  the  fungus.  Fungi  are  classified 
botanically  according  to  the  spore-bearing  bodies,  their  form,  color,  etc. 
The  parasitic  fungi  which  are  especially  destructive  to  wood  are 
those  that  have  naked  spores  growing  on  exposed  fruiting  surfaces 
(the  Hymenomycetes) .  In  toadstools  (the  agarics)  these  exposed 
surfaces  are  thin,  flat  plates  called  gills.  In  the  polypores,  which  in- 
clude the  shelf  fungi,  the  spore 
surfaces  are  tubes  whose  open- 
ings constitute  the  pores.  In 
the  dry-rot,  or  tear  fungus  (Me- 
rulius  lacrymans),  the  spore 
surfaces  are  shallow  cavities. 

Some  varieties,  called  true 
parasites,  develop  in  uninjured 
trees,  while  others,  called 
wound  parasites,  can  penetrate 
the  tissues  of  trees,  only  where 
a  cut  or  injury  makes  a  suit- 
able lodgment  for  the  spores. 
Some  fungi  attack  only  a  sin- 
gle species  of  trees,  others 
whole  genera;  some  attack 
only  conifers,  others  decidu- 
ous trees,  while  a  few  attack 
trees  of  nearly  all  kinds  alike. 
F™gal  spores  when  brought 
in  contact  with  a  wound  on  a 

tree  or  other  suitable  place,  and  provided  with  suitable  conditions  of 
growth,  germinate,  penetrate  the  tissues  and  grow  very  rapidly. 
These  spores  send  out  long  threads  or  filaments  which  run  thru  the 
cells  lengthwise  and  also  pierce  them  in  all  directions,  soon  forming 
a  network  in  the  wood  called  the  mycelium. 

Hotting,  in  a  large  number  of  cases,  is  due  to  the  ravages  of 
fungi.  This  sometimes  shows  in  the  color,  as  the  "red  rot"  of  pine 
or  the  "bluing"  of  ash.  Sometimes  as  in  "pecky"  or  "peggy"  cypress, 


NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF   THE   FOREST. 


235 


the  decayed  tracts  are  tubular.  More  commonly  the  decayed  parts  are 
of  irregular  shape. 

The  decay  of  wood  is  due  to  the  ravages  of  low  forms  of  plant 
life,  both  bacteria  and  fungi. 

A  few  of  the  more  destructive  forms  may  be  noted. 

Trametes  pini  (Brot.)  Fr. 
Foremost  among  the  timber  de- 
stroying fungi  is  the  large  brown 
"punk"  or  "conch"  found  in  its 
typical  development  on  the  long- 
leaf  and  short-leaf  pines,  Pinus 
palustris  and  Pinus  echinata,  Fig. 
81.  The  fruiting  bodies  form 
large  masses  which  grow  out  from 
a  knot,  oftentimes  as  large  as  a 
child's  head.  They  are  cinnamon 
brown  on  the  lower  surface,  and 
much  fissured  and  broken,  on  the 
black  charcoal-like  upper  surface. 
This  fungus  probably  causes  four- 
fifths  of  the  destruction  brought 
about  by  the  timber  destroying 
fungi.  It  occurs  on  most  of  the 
conifers  in  the  United  States 

which    have    any    value    as    lumber 

J  Fig-.  81.     A  "Conch,"  the  fruiting  body  of 

trees,    and    brings    about    a    charac-  Trametes  //»/,   on   Sugar   Pine.      {Agr^c. 
teristic      white      spotting      of      the  rear  Book,  , ^  Pi.  XXII,  Fig.  2.1 

wood,    Fig.    82,    which    varies    with 

the  kind  of  tree  attacked.      (Von  Schrenk,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1900,  p.  206.) 


**'•, 

I 


Fig-.  82.    Effect  ofJFung-us.    (Trametes pint.}     U.S.Dept.  Agrtc 


236 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Of  the  shelf  fungi,  which  project  like  brackets  from  the  stems  of 
trees,  and  have  their  pores  on  their  under  surfaces,  one  of  the  com- 
monest in  many  localities  is  the  yellow  cheese-like  Polyporus  sulphu- 
reus,  Fig.  83.  This  is  found  on  oak,  poplar,  willow,  larch,  and  other 
standing  timber. 

Its  spawnlike  threads  spread  from  any  exposed  portion  of  cambium  into 
the  pith-rays  and  between  the  annual  rings,  forming  thick  layers  of  yellow- 
ish-white felt,  and  penetrating  the  vessels  of  the  wood,  which  thereupon 
becomes  a  deep  brown  color  and  decays. 

Of  the  umbrella-shaped  gill-bearing  fungi,  a  yellow  toadstool, 
called  the  honey  mushroom  (Agaricus  melleus],  is  a  good  example, 
Fig.  84. 

This  fungus,  of  common  occurrence  in 
the  United  States  as  well  as  in  Europe,  is 
exceedingly  destructive  to  coniferous  trees, 
the  white  pine  in  particular  suffering  greatly 
from  its  attacks.  It  also  fastens  upon  vari- 
ous deciduous  species  as  a  parasite,  attack- 
ing living  trees  of  all  ages,  but  living  as  well 
upon  dead  roots  and  stumps  and  on  wood  that 
has  been  cut  and  worked  up,  occurring  fre- 
quently on  bridges,  railroad  ties,  and  the 
like,  and  causing  prompt  decay  wherever  it 
has  effected  an  entrance.  The  most  conspicu- 
ous part  of  the  fungus  is  found  frequently  in 
the  summer  and  fall  on  the  diseased  parts 
of  the  tree  or  umber  infested  by  it.  It  is 
one  of  the  common  toadstools,  this  particular 
species  being  recognized  by  its  yellowish  color, 
gills  extending  downward  upon  the  stem, 
which  is  encircled  a  little  lower  down  by  a 
ring,  and  by  its  habit  of  growing  in  tufts  or 
little  clumps  of  several  or  many  individuals 
together.  It  is  also  particularly  distinguished 
by  the  formation  of  slender,  dark-colored  strings,  consisting  of  compact 
mycelium,  from  which  the  fruiting  parts  just  described  arise.  These  hard 
root-like  strings  (called  rhizomorphs)  extend  along  just  beneath  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  often  a  distance  of  several  feet,  and  penetrate  the  roots 
of  sound  trees.  By  carefully  removing  the  bark  from  a  root  thus  invaded 
the  fungus  is  seen  in  the  form  of  a  dense,  nearly  white,  mass  of  mycelium, 
which,  as  the  parts  around  decay,  gradually  produces  again  the  rhizomorphs 
already  described.  These  rhizomorphs  are  a  characteristic  part  of  the 
fungus.  Occurring  both  in  the  decayed  wood  from  which  they  spread  to 
the  adjacent  parts,  and  extending  in  the  soil  from  root  to  root,  they  constitute 
a  most  effective  agency  in  the  extension  of  the  disease. 


Fig-.  83.  "Shelf"  Fungus  on 
Pine.  a.  Sound  wood;£.  Kesin- 
ous"ligtit"  wo  d;  c.  Partly  de- 
cayed wood  or  punk;  d.  Leaver 
of  living  spore  tubes  *»  Old 
filled-up  spore  tubes;  f.  Flut- 
ed upper  surface  of  the  fruit- 
ing-body  of  the  fungus,  which 
g-ets  its  food  thru  a  great 
number  of  fine  threads  (the 
mycelium),  its  vegetative  tis- 
sue penetrating- the  wood  and 
causing  its  decay.  [After 
Hartig.} 


NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF   THE   FOREST. 


237 


External  symptoms,  to  be  observed  especially  in  young  specimens  re- 
cently attacked,  consist  in  a  change  of  the  leaves  to  a  pale  sickly  color  and 
often  the  production  of  short  stunted  shoots.  A  still  more  marked  symptom 
is  the  formation  of  great  quantities  of  resin,  which  flow  downward  thru  the 
injured  parts  and  out  into  the  ground.  (Forestry  Bulletin  No.  22,  p.  51.) 

Of  the  irregular  shaped  fungi,  one  of  the  most  destructive  is  a 
true  parasite,  i.  e.f  one  that  finds  lodgment  without  help,  called  Poly- 
porus  annosus  and  also  Trametes  radiciperda,  Fig.  85.  It  is  peculiar 
in  developing  its  fructifications  on  the  exterior  of  roots,  beneath  the 


Fig-.  84.     Honey   Mushroom.     Agancus  melleus.     1.  Cluster  of  small  sporophores. 
2.  Larger  sporophore  with   root-like  organ  of   attachment.    Forestry  Bulletin  22. 
Plate  XII,  Figs. land  2. 

soil.     Its  pores  appear  on  the  upper  side  of  the  fructifications.     It 
Attacks  only  conifers. 

Its  spores,  which  can  be  readily  conveyed  in  the  fur  of  mice  or  other 
burrowing  animals,  germinate  in  the  moisture  around  the  roots:  the  fine 
threads  of  "spawn"  penetrate  the  cortex,  and  spread  thru  and  destroy  the 
cambium,  extending  in  thin,  flat,  fan-like,  white,  silky  bands,  andj  here  and 
there,  bursting  thru  the  cortex  in  white,  oval  cushions,  on  which  the  sub- 
terranean fructifications  are  produced.  Each  of  these  is  a  yellowish-white, 
felt-like  mass,  with  its  outer  surface  covered  with  crowded  minute  tubes  or 


238 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


"pores"  in  which  the  spores  are  produced.  The  wood  attacked  by  this 
fungus  first  becomes  rosy  or  purple,  then  turns  yellowish,  and  then  exhibits 
minute  black  dots,  which  surround  themselves  with  extending  soft  white 
patches.  (Boulger,  p.  73.) 

Of  the  fungi  which  attack  converted  timber,  the  most  important 
is  "dry  rot"  or  "tear  fungus"   (Merulius  lacJirymans] ,  Fig.  80.     It 


J 


Fig.  85.  1.  Stump  of  Norway  Spruce,  with  a  sporophoreof 
polyporus  annosus  several  years  old;  the  inner  portions  of  the 
stump  wholly  decayed. 

2,.  Roots  of  a  diseased  spruce  tree,  with  numerous  small 
sporophores  of  polvporus  annosus  attached.  Forestry  Bulle- 
ttn  22,  Plate  XIII,  Figs.  1  and  2. 

flourishes  on  damp  wood  in  still  air,  especially  around  stables  and  ill 
ventilated  cellars.  It  gets  its  name  lachrymans  (weeping)  from  its 
habit  of  dripping  moisture. 

The  fungus  destroys  the  substance  of  the  timber,  lessening  its  weight 
and  causing  it  to  warp  and  crack;  until  at  length  it  crumbles  up  when  dry 
into  a  fine  brown  powder,  or,  readily  absorbing  any  moisture  in  its  neighbor- 
hood, becomes  a  soft,  cheese-like  mass.  *  *  *  Imperfectly  seasoned  tim- 


NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF   THE   FOREST. 


239 


her  is  most  susceptible  to  dry  rot:  the  fungus  can  be  spread  either  by  its 
spawn  or  by  spores,  and  these  latter  can  be  carried  even  by  the  clothes  or 
saws  of  workmen,  and  are,  of  course,  only  too  likely  to  reach  sound  wood 
if  diseased  timber  is  left  about  near  it;  but  on  the  other  hand  dry  timber 
kept  dry  is  proof  against  dry  rot,  and  exposure  to  really  dry  air  is  fatal  to 
the  fungus.  (Boulger,  p.  75.) 

About  all  that  can  be  done  to  protect  the  forest  against  fungi  is 
to  keep  it  clean,  that  is,  to  clear  out  fallen  timber  and  slash,  and  in 
some  cases  to  dig  trenches  around  affected  trees  to  prevent  spreading 
or  to  cut  them  out  and  destroy 
them.  Such  methods  have  here- 
tofore been  too  expensive  to  em- 
ploy in  any  ordinary  American 
forest,  but  the  time  is  at  hand 
when    such    action    will    prove 
profitable  in  many  localities. 

For  the  preservation  of  cut 
timber  from  decay,  several 
methods  are  used.  Fungi  need 
heat,  air,  moisture  and  food. 
If  any  one  of  these  is  lacking 
the  fungus  cannot  grow.  Air 
and  heat  are  hard  to  exclude 
from  wood,  but  moisture  and 
food  can  be  kept  from  fungi. 
The  removal  of  moisture  is 

called  seasoning,  and  the  poisoning  of  the  food  of  fungi  is  a  process 
of  impregnating  wood  with  certain  chemicals.  Both  these  processes 
are  described  in  Handwork  in  Wood,  Chapter  III. 


F\g.  86.  Portion  of  the  myce- 
lium of  dry  rot  or  tear  fungus, 
Me  rn  lilt  s  lachrymans.  This 
cakelike  mass  spreads  over 
the  surface  of  the  timber.  In 
a  moist  environment  pellucid 
drops  or  "tears"  distil  from 
it-<  lower  surface;  Hence  its 
name.  [Ward:  Timber;  Fijr  21. J 


ANIMAI,    ENEMIES. 

The  larger  animals  working  damage  to  our  forests  are  chiefly  ro- 
dents and  grazing  animals.  Beavers  gnaw  the  bark,  while  mice  and 
squirrels  rob  the  forest  of  seed  and  consequently  of  new  trees.  The 
acorns  of  white  oak  are  particularly  liable  to  be  devoured  because  of 
their  sweetness,  while  those  of  red  and  black  oak,  which  afford  timber 
of  comparatively  little  value,  are  allowed  to  sprout,  and  thus  come 
to  possess  the  land.  Hogs  annually  consume  enormous  quantities  of 
"mast,"  i.  e.,  acorns  or  other  nuts,  by  pasturing  in  oak  and  other 


240 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


forests.  They,  together  with  goats  and  sheep,  Figs.  87  and  88,  deer 
and  cattle,  work  harm  by  trampling  and  browsing.  Browsing  destroys 
the  tender  shoots,  especially  of  deciduous  trees,  but  trampling  en- 
tirely kills  out  the  seedlings.  The  cutting  up  of  the  soil  by  the  sharp 

cleft  hoofs  injures  the  forest 
floor,  by  pulverizing  it  and  al- 
lowing it  to  be  readily  washed 
away  by  storms  until  defores- 
tation may  result,  as  was  the 
case  in  France  after  the  Eevo- 
lution.  It  has  cost  the  French 
people  from  thirty  to  forty 
million  dollars  to  repair  the 
damage  begun  by  the  sheep.  In 


New  Mexico,  u.s.  Forest  Service.  this  country,  this  matter  has 

become  a  very  serious  one  on 

the  Pacific  Coast,  where  there  are  enormous  flocks  of  sheep,  and  there- 
fore the  government  is  trying  to  regulate  the  grazing  on  public  lands 
there,  especially  on  steep  slopes,  where  erosion  takes  place  rapidly.1 

The  most  destructive  animal  enemies  of  the  forest  are  the  insects. 
The  average  annual  loss  of  trees  in  the  United  States  from  this  cause 
alone  has  been  estimated  to  be  one  hundred  million  dollars. 


Fig.88.    Sheep  Grazing-  in  Forest,  Idaho.      U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Insects  have  two  objects  in  their  attack  on  trees,  one  is  to  obtain 
food,  as  when  they  are  in  the  larval  stage,  and  the  other  is  to  provide 
for  offspring,  as  do  certain  beetles. 


1  The  evils  of  grazing  are  increased  by  the  fact  that  fires  are  sometimes 
started  intentionally  in  order  to  increase  the  area  of  grazing  land. 


NATURAIy   ENEMIES   OF    THE   FOREST. 


241 


The  number  of  insect  enemies  of  the  forest  is  enormous.  At  the 
St.  Louis  Exposition,  there  were  on  exhibit  nearly  three  hundred 
such  insects.  These  belong  to  some  twenty  orders,  of  which  the 
beetles  (Coleoptera) ,  which  have  horny  wings  and  biting  mouth  parts, 
and  the  moths  and  butterflies  (Lepidoptera) ,  with  membraneous 
wings  and  sucking  mouth  parts,  are  the  most  destructive.  Insects 
attack  every  part  of 
the  tree,  the  seed,  the 
shoot,  the  flower,  the 
root,  the  leaf,  the  bark 
and  the  wood,  both 
standing  and  cut. 

Of  the  fruit  and 
seed  pests,  the  most 
destructive  are  wee- 
vils, worms  and  gall 
insects. 

Of  the  twig  and 
shoot  pests,  beetles, 
weevils  and  caterpil- 
lars are  the  worst. 

Among  insects  that 
attack  roots,  the  peri- 
odical cicada  (17  year 
old  locust)  may  be 
noted. 

The  leaf  pests  are 
far  more  serious.  They 
include  the  true  and 
false  caterpillars,  moths,  gall  insects  and  plant  lice, 

Of  the  bark  pests,  the  bark  beetles  are  the  most  destructive. 
These  are  also  called  Engraver  Beetles  from  the  smoothly  cut  figures 
which  are  their  burrows  under  the  bark,  Figs.  89,  90,  91. 

Many  pairs  of  beetles  make  a  simultaneous  attack  on  the  lower  half  of 
the  main  trunk  of  medium-sized  to  large  trees.  They  bore  thru  the  outer 
bark  to  the  inner  living  portion,  and  thru  the  inner  layers  of  the  latter; 
they  excavate  long,  irregular,  longitudinal  galleries,  and  along  the  sides  of 
these  at  irregular  intervals,  numerous  eggs  are  closely  placed.  The  eggs 
soon  hatch  and  the  larvae  at  once  commence  to  feed  on  the  inner  bark,  and 


Fig-.  89.  Work  of  the  Spruce  Destroying-  Beetle: 
a.  Primary  gallery;  b.  Boring's  packed  in  side;  c,  En- 
trance and  central  burrow  thru  the  packed  borings; 


,  Larval  mines.     Note  how  the  eggs  are  grouped  on 
the  sides.     \_Agric.     Tear  Book,  1902,  Fig.  24,  p.  268.] 


242 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


as  they  increase  in  size,  extend  and  enlarge  their  food  burrows  in  a  general 
transverse  but  irregular  course,  away  from  the  mother  galleries  (see  illus- 
tration). When  these  young  and  larval  forms  are  full  grown,  each  exca- 
vates a  cavity  or  cell  at  the  end  of  its  burrow  and  next  to  the  outer  corky 
bark.  (Hopkins,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1902.) 

Some  of  the  species  attack  living  trees,  causing  their  rapid  death, 
and  are  among  the  most  destructive  enemies  of  American  forests. 

All  of  the  above  in- 
directly affect  both  the 
quantity  and  quality 
of  the  wood  supply. 
They  can  be  studied 
more  in  detail  in  the 
publications  of  the  U.S. 
Bureau  of  Entomology. 

Of  the  insects  di- 
rectly attacking  wood, 
the  most  important 
are  the  ambrosia  or 
timber  beetles,  the  bor- 
ers, the  ants,  and  the 
carpenter  bees.  The 
most  remarkable  fea- 
ture of  the  beetle  is  the 
manner  of  its  boring 
into  the  harder  parts 
of  the  wood.  Its  jaws 
are  particularly  con- 


Fig-.  90.    Complete   Brood  Galleries  of  the  Hickory 

Bark  Beetle  in  Surface  of  Wood.    [Agric.   Tear  Book, 

1903,  Fig.  28,  p.  316.] 


structed  for  this  work, 

being  heavy  and  strong.  The  boring  is  done  something  after  the  man- 
ner of  countersinking,  and  the  jaws  are  believed  to  be  self -sharpening, 
by  reason  of  the  peculiar  right  to  left  and  left  to  right  motion. 

Ambrosia  or  timber  beetles,  Fig.  92.  This  class  of  insects  attacks  liv- 
ing, dead,  and  felled  trees,  sawlogs,  green  lumber,  and  stave-bolts,  often 
causing  serious  injury  and  loss  from  the  pin-hole  and  stained-wood  defects 
caused  by  their  brood  galleries.  The  galleries  are  excavated  by  the  parent 
beetles  in  the  sound  sap-wood  sometimes  extending  into  the  heart-wood,  and 
the  young  stages  feed  on  a  fungus  growth  which  grows  on  the  walls  of 
galleries.  (Hopkins,  Entom.  Bulletin  No.  48,  p.  10.)  The  growth  of  this 
ambrosia-like  fungus  is  induced  or  controlled  by  the  parent  beetles  and  the 
your.g  are  dependent  on  it  for  food.  (Hopkins,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1904.) 


NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF    THE   FOREST. 


243 


Fig-.  91.  Brood  Galleries  of 
the  Oak  Hark  Beetle,  showing- 
Character  of  Primary  Gallery 
at  b;  Larval  or  Brood  Mines  a"t 
a.  \Agric.  Tear  Book,  1903,  Fig-. 
30,  page  318.] 


Pig-.  92.  Work  of  Ambrosia  Beetle, 
Xyloborus  celsns,  in  Hickory  Wood:  a, 
Larva;  />,  Pupa;  c,  Adult  beetle;  d.  Char- 
acter of  work  in'  lumber  cut  from  in- 
jured log-;  «.',  Bark;/,  Sap  wood;  g.  Heart- 
wood.  \_Affric.  Tear  Book,  1904,  Fig-.  44, 
P.384.J 

There  are  two  general  types  or  classes  of 
these  galleries,  one  in  which  the  broods  de- 
velop together  in  the  main  burrows,  the  other, 
in  which  the  individuals  develop  in  short 
separate  side  chambers  extending  at  right 
angles  from  the  primary  gallery,  Fig.  93. 
The  galleries  of  the  latter  type  are  usually 
accompanied  by  a  distinct  staining  of  the 
wood,  while  those  of  the  former  are  not. 
(Hopkins,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1904,  p.  383.) 

Bark    and    ivood    borers,    Fig.    94.      This 

class  of  enemies  differs  from  the  preceding  in  the  fact  that  the  parent  beetles 
do  not  burrow  into  the  wood  or  bark,  but  deposit  their  eggs  on  the  surface. 
The  elongate,  whitish,  round-headed  ( Cerambycid ) ,  flat-headed  (Buprestid), 
or  short,  stout  (Curculionid) 
grubs  hatching  from  these 
eggs  cause  injury  by  bur- 
rowing beneath  the  bark,  or 
deep  into  the  sap-wood  and 
heart- wood  of  living,  in- 
]ured  and  dead  trees,  saw- 
]ogs,  etc.  Some  of  the  spe- 
cies infest  living  trees,  Fig. 
95,  causing  serious  injury 
or  death.  Others  attack 
only  dead  or  dying  bark  and 
wood,  but  this  injury  often 
results  in  great  loss  from 
the  so-called  wormhole  de- 
fects. (A.  D.  Hopkins, 
Entom.  Bull,  No  48.  p.  10.) 


Fig-.  93.  Wcrk  of  Ambrosia  Beetles  in 
Oak:  a,  Monarthum  mali,  and  work; 
b,  Platypus  compositus,  and  work;  c, 
Bark;  ~d,  Sap-wood;  e.  Heart-wood;  /", 
Character  of  work  in  lumber  from  in- 
iured  log-.  [Agric.  Tear  Book,  1904,  Fig-. 
*45,  p.  384.] 


244 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Fig-.  94.  Work  of  Round-Headed  and 
Flat- Headed  Borers  in  Pine:  a,  Work 
of  ro-jnd-headed  borers,  "sawyer,"  Mono- 
hamnus  sp.;  £,  Ergates  spiculatus\  c,  Work 
of  flat-headed  borer,  Buprestis,  larva 
and  adult.  [Agric.  Tear  Book.  1904, 
Fig-f46,  p.  385.] 


The  pine  sawyers  are 
among  the  most  trouble- 
some pests  in  the  mill 
yard,  and  their  large, 
white  larvae  often  do 
much  damage  to  logs  by 
eating  great  holes  thru 
their  solid  interior.  While 
burrowing  in  the  wood 
the  larvae  make  a  pecu- 
liar grating  sound  that 
may  be  heard  on  quiet 
nights  at  a  considerable 
distance.  This  is  a  fa- 
miliar sound  in  the  lum- 
ber camps  of  the  North, 

and  has  probably  given  rise  to  the  name  of  the  pine  sawyers  by  which  these 

insects  are  known.     (Forestry  Bulletin,  No.  22,  p.  58.) 

Powder-post   beetles,   Fig.    96.     This    is    a   class   of   insects   representing 

two  or  three  families  of  beetles,  the  larvae  of  which  infest  and  convert  into 

fine  powder  many  different  kinds  of  dry  and  seasoned  wood  products,  such 

as  hickory  and  ash  handles,  wagon  spokes,  lumber,  etc.,  when  wholly  or  in 

part  from  the  sap-wood  of  trees.     Oak  and  hemlock  tan-bark   is  sometimes 

injured  to  a  great  extent,  and  the  structural  timbers  of  old  houses,  barns, 

etc,  are  often  seriously  injured,  while  hop  poles  and  like  products  are  at- 

tacked by  one  set  of  these  insects,  the  adults  of  which  burrow  into  the  wood 

for  the  purpose  of 

depositing    their 

eggs.          (  Hopkins, 

Forestry     Bulletin 

No.  48,  p.   11.) 

Timber  worms, 

Fig  97.    This  class 

of    true    wood-bor- 

ing    "worms,"     or 

grubs,  are  the  lar- 

vae      of       beetles. 

They      enter      the 

wood  from  eggs  de- 

posited   in   wounds 

in      living      trees, 

from    which     they 

burrow    deep    into 

the       heart-  wood. 

Generation       after 


rnav 


Fig-.  95.    Hemlock  Killed  bv  Buprestid  Worms. 
Hoquiam,  Washington.     U.S.  Forest  Service. 


NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF   THE   FOREST. 


245 


develop  in  the  wood  of  a  tree  without  affecting  its  life  but  the  wood  Is  ren- 
dered worthless  for  most  purposes  by  the  so-called  wormhole  and  pinhole 
defects  resulting  from  their  burrows.  The  same  species  also  breed  in  the 
wood  of  dying  and  dead  standing  trees,  and  in  the  stumps  and  logs  of  felled 
ones,  often  for  many  years  after  the  trees  are  felled.  One  species  sometimes 
attacks  freshly  sawed  oak  lumber,  new  stave  bolts,  etc.  They  are  among 

the  most  destructive  ene- 
mies of  hardwood  forest 
trees,  especially  in  rer 
ducing  the  value  of  the 
wood  of  the  best  part  of 
the  trunks.  ( Hopkins, 

Fig-.  96.  Work  of  Powder  Post  Beetle,  Sinoxylon  basi- 
lare,  in  hickory  pole:  a,  Character  of  work  by  larvae; 
£,  Exit  holes  made  by  emerging-  broods.  r 


Book,  1904,  Fig.  49.] 


[  Agric.     Tear 


Forestry   Bulletin  No.   48, 

p.     10.) 

The    carpenter    worms, 

Fig.   98.     These  are  large 

pinkish  caterpillars  which  are  the  larvae  of  stout-bodied  moths.  They  enter 
the  bark  and  wood  of  living  oak,  locust,  poplar  and  other  trees,  from  eggs 
deposited  by  the  moths  in  the  crevices  of  uninjured  bark,  or  in  the  edges  of 
wounds.  They  burrow  deep  into  the  solid  wood,  where  they  live  for  two  or 
three  years  before  transforming  to  the  adult.  The  wood  is  seriously  injured 
by  the  very  large  wormhole  defects,  and  while  the  life  of  the  tree  is  but 
slightly,  if  at  all,  af- 
fected by  the  earlier  at- 
tacks, the  continued 
operations  of  this  class 
of  borers  year  after  year, 
finally  results  in  the  de- 
cay of  the  heart-wood,  or 
a  hollow  trunk  and  a 
dead  top.  (Hopkins, 
Forestry  Bulletin,  No. 
48,  p.  11.) 

Columbian  Timber- 
beetle.  One  of  the  com- 
monest wormhole  defects 
in  white  oak,  rock  oak, 
beech,  and  tulip  ("white- 
wood"  or  "yellow  pop- 
lar") is  one  known  to 

the  lumber  trade  as  grease  spots,  patch- worm,  or  black  holes,  Fig  99,  steam 
boats,  Fig.  100,  etc.,  caused  by  the  Columbian  timber  beetle  (Corthylus  co- 
lumUanus  Hopk.)  The  characteristic  feature  of  this  wormhole  defect,  which 
will  enable  it  to  be  readily  recognized  in  oak  and  beech,  is  transverse  series 
of  two  or  more  black  holes  about  the  size  of  the  lead  in  an  ordinary  lead 
pencil,  with  a  streak  of  stained  wood  extending  with  the  grain  two  or  three 
or  more  inches  each  side,  as  in  Fig.  99.  In  quarter-sawed  oak  or  split  or 


Fig.  97.  Work  of  Timber  Worms  in 
Oak:  «,  Work  of  oak  timber  worm, 
Eupsalis  minuta;  b,  Barked  surface; 
c,  Bark;  </,  Sap-wood  timber  worm,  Hy- 
tocaetus  Ingubris,  and  its  work;  e.  Sap- 
wood.  [Agric.  Tear  Book,  1904,  Fig-.  47, 
p.  386.] 


246 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Fig.  98.     Worm  Holes  in  Red 
Oak,  Work  of  the  Oak   Car- 
penter Worm.     [Agric.     Tear 
Book,  1903,  Fig.  37,  p.  324.  J 


sawed  staves,  a  short  longitudi- 
nal section  of  one  of  these  black 
holes  is  seen  attended  by  the 
stained  streak  on  one  side  of  a 
thick  or  curly  growth  or  grain, 
Fig.  100.  It  is  this  form  which 
is  called  "steamboats."  In  white- 
wood  (yellow  poplar)  the  black 
holes  are  attended  by  very  long 
black,  greenish,  or  bluish  streaks, 
sometimes  five  or  six  feet  lon^. 

G 

When     this     is     common     in     the 

lumber  it  is  called  "calico  poplar."  Fig.  101  represents  the  characteristic  ap- 
pearance of  this  defect  greatly  reduced.  (Hopkins,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1903,  p.  327.) 

Carpenter  bees.  The  work  of  this 
class  of  woodboring  bees  is  shown  in  Fig. 
102.  The  injury  consists  of  large  auger- 
like  tunnels  in  exposed,  solid  dry  wood  of 
buildings  and  other  structures.  It  is  most 
common  in  soft  woods,  such  as  pine,  pop- 
lar, redwood  and  the  like.  (Hopkins, 
Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1904,  p.  390., 

Horn  tails.  This  is  a  class  of  borers 
which  are  the  larvae  of  the  so-called  wood 
wasps.  They  may  enter  the  exposed  dead 
wood  of  wounds  of  living  trees,  but  more 
commonly  attack  the  wood  of  dead  stand- 
ing conifers  and  hard  woods,  in  the  sap- 
wood  of  which  they  excavate  irregular 
burrows,  which  are  packed  with  their  bor- 
ings. When  the  adults  emerge  they  leave 
the  surface  perforated  with  numerous 
round  holes.  Water  and  fungi  entering 
these  holes  cause  a  very  rapid  decay  of 
the  wood.  (Hopkins,  Entom.  Bull.  No.  48, 
p.  11.) 

The  tunnels  of  these  various  wood  pests  are  most  frequently  to 
be  seen  in  chestnut,  ash,  hickory,  oak,  tulip,  and  cypress. 

One     would     think 
^       that  with   such   an   ar- 
ray    of     enemies,     the 
-* —  forest      would 


Fig-.  99.  Work  of  the  Columbian 
Timber  Beetle:  Black  holes  and 
"grease  spots"  in  white  oak. 
[Agric.  Tear  Book.  1903,  Fig.  38, 
p.  325.1 


Fig.  100.      Work  of  the  Columbian 

Timber  Beetle:      "Steamboats"    in 

quartered  or  Split  white  oak.  \Agrtc. 

Tear  Book,  1903,  Fig.  39,  p.  326.] 


hardly 
survive,  but  on  the 
other  hand  there  are 
manv  enemies  of  these 


ENEMIES    OF    THE   FOREST. 


247 


Fig".  101.     Work  of  the  Columbian  Timber  Beetle  in 
Tulip  Wood,  "Calico  Poplar."   {Aerie.     Tear  Book 


\_Agt 
1903,  FijLf.  40,  p.  326.] 


pests.  The  most  destructive  are  the  prcdaceons  and  parasitic  insect-- 
Many insects  are  simply  predaceous,  pouncing  upon  and  destroying 
such  other  insects  as  they  can  overcome. 
Still  others  are  parasites,  some  external, 
but  most  of  them  living  within  the  bod- 
ies of  their  victims  where  they  pass  their 
entire  larval  life.  The  eggs  are  laid  on 
or  in  the  body  of  the  victim,  so  that  as 
soon  as  one  hatches,  it  has  suitable  food. 
The  ichneumon  fly,  Fig.  103,  is  such  a 
parasite;  it  destroys  millions  of  insect 
pests.  It  has  a  long  and  peculiar  ovipos- 
itor with  which  it  drills  a  hole  into  the 
tree  and  deposits  the  egg  in  a  burrow  of 
the  Pigeon  Horntail,  a  wood  wasp  that 
burrows  into  deciduous  trees.  The  larva 
soon  finds  its  victim,  the  grub  of  the 
Pigeon  Horntail,  and  lives  on  it  to  its 
destruction. 

It  would  seem  that  it  is  a  hopeless 
task  to  control  the  insect  enemies  of  for- 
est trees  and  forest  products  or  to  pre- 
vent losses  from  their  ravages,  but  the 
writer  is  informed  by  Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  Fig-.  102.  work  of  iherarpen- 

,1  j.    •         1 1         -n  1er  Bee,   Xylocopa    orpifex,    in 

tlie    expert   in    the    -Bureau    OI    Entomology          Redwood  Lumber:  a,  entrance; 

-,„„,.  *,  g-alleries;  c,  cells;  ct,  larva; 

in  charge  01  lorest  insect  investigations        e>  adult.    [Agrfc.   Tear  Book, 

1904,  Fig.  53,  p.  390.] 


248  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

that  the  results  of  their  investigations  show  conclusively  that  there 
are  many  practical  and  inexpensive  methods  of  control  now  available 
thru  the  suggestions  and  recommendations  in  recent  Department  pub- 
lications on  forest  insects,  as  well  as  thru  direct  correspondence  with 
the  Department.  These  methods  are  based  on  the  principle  of  pre- 


Fig-.  103.      Ichneumon    Fly   whose 

I/arva  Feeds  on  the  Larva  of  the 

Pigeon  Horn-tail. 

vention  and  not  on  that  of  extermination.  It  has  been  shown  that 
thru  proper  adjustment  of  the  details  in  management  of  forests  and 
of  the  business  of  manufacturing,  storing,  transporting,  and  utilizing 
the  products  a  large  percentage  of  the  losses  can  be  prevented  at  small 
additional  expense,  and  that  even  when  considerable  cost  is  involved 
the  amount  saved  will  often  represent  a  handsome  profit. 


NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF   THE   FOREST.  249 


THE   NATURAL   ENEMIES   OF    THE  FOREST. 
REFERENCES : * 

( 1 )  Meterological. 

Pinchot,   Primer  I,   pp.    75-76.     Bruncken,    pp.    27-29. 
Roth,    First    Book,    pp.     198- 
202. 

Water. 

Roth,    First    Book,    p.    27. 

Snow,  ice  and  frost. 

Pinchot,    Primer,   I,    p.    70.  Bruce,  For.  and  2rr.,  8:   159,  Ap. '02. 

(2)  Vegetable. 

Roth,    First    Book,    p.    4.  Sherfesee.    For.    Circ.   No.    139. 

Boulger,    pp.    70-75.  von  Schrenck,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.  Bull. 

Spaulding,  For.  Bull.,  No.  22.  No.   36. 

Ward,    Chaps.    V,    VI,    VII.  von  Schrenck,  Bur.  Plant  Ind.  Bull. 

Sickles,    pp.    41-45.  No.   32. 

von   Schrenck,  For.  Bull.,  No.  von   Schrenck,  Agric.   Yr.  Bk.,   1900, 

41,   PL   III.  p.   199. 

(3)  Animal. 
Grazing. 

Pinchot,     Primer    I,    pp.     69-     Coville,  For.  Bull.  No.  15,  pp.  28-31. 

73,    II,   p.    73. 
Pinchot,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1898,     Roth,  First  Bk.,  p.   130,  178. 

p.    187. 

Insects. 

Comstock,    passim.  Hopkins,    Agric.    Yr.   Bk.,    1903,   pp. 

Hopkins,      Agric.      Yr.  Bk.,         313-328. 

1902,    pp.    265-282.  Hopkins,    Agric.    Yr.   Bk.,    1904,   pp. 

Roth.    First    Book,    pp.  115-          382-389,   Figs.    43-56. 

130.  Pinchot,    Primer,    I,   p.    73. 

Howard,     Entom.     Bull.,  No.     Felt,    N.    Y.    State    Museum    Bull., 

11,  n.  s.  103,  Ent.  25. 
Hopkins,     Spaulding,     Entom.     Hopkins,   Entom.   Bull.   No.    32. 

Bull,   No.    28.  Hopkins,    Entom.    Bull.    No.    56. 

Hopkins,    Entom.    Bull.,  No.     Hopkins,    Entom.   Bull.    No.    58. 

48.  Spaulding      and      Chittenden,      For. 

Bull.   No.   22,  pp.   55-61. 


*For  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
THE  EXHAUSTION  OF  THE  FOREST. 

The  exhaustion  of  the  forest  in  the  United  States  is  due  to  two 
main  causes:  (1)  Fire,  and  (2)  Destructive  Lumbering. 

FIRE. 

It  is  not  commonly  realized  that  forest  fires  are  almost  entirely 
the  result  of  human  agency.  When  cruisers  first  began  to  locate 
claims  in  this  country,  practically  no  regions  had  been  devastated  by 
fire.  Now  such  regions  are  to  be  seen  everywhere.  Altho  lightning 


Fig.  104.     Slash,  Left  in  the  Woods,  and'fReady  to  Catch  Fire. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

occasionally  sets  fire  to  forests,  especially  in  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
the  losses  from  this  cause  are  trifling  compared  with  the  total  loss. 

Opportunities  for  fire.  There  are  a  number  of  facts  that  make  the 
forest  peculiarly  liable  to  fire.  Especially  in  the  fall  there  are  great 
quantities  of  inflammable  material,  such  as  dry  leaves,  twigs,  and  duff 
lying  loose  ready  for  ignition.  The  bark  of  some  trees,  as  "paper 
birch,"  and  the  leaves  of  others,  as  conifers,  are  very  inflammable.  It 
follows  that  fires  are  more  common  in  coniferous  than  in  deciduous 
forests.  After  lumbering  or  windfalls,  the  accumulated  "slash"  burns 
easily  and  furiously,  Fig.  104.  Moreover  a  region  once  burned  over, 

251 


252 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


is  particularly  liable  to  burn  again,  on  account  of  the  accumulation 
of  dry  trunks  and  branches.  See  Fig.  107. 

Long  dry  seasons  and  high  wind  furnish  particularly  favorable 
conditions  for  fire.  On  the  other  hand,  the  wind  by  changing  in  di- 
rection may  extinguish  the  fire  by  turning  it  back  upon  its  track. 
Indeed  the  destructive  power  of  fires  depends  largely  upon  the  wind. 

Causes  of  fire.  Forest  fires  are  due  to  all  sorts  of  causes,  accidental 
and  intentional.  Dropped  matches,  smouldering  tobacco,  neglected 


Fig-.  105.    Forest  Fire.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


camp  fires  and  brush  fires,  locomotive  sparks,  may  all  be  accidental 
causes  that  under  favorable  conditions  entail  tremendous  loss.  There 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  many  forest  fires  are  set  intentionally. 
The  fact  that  grass  and  berry  bushes  will  soon  spring  up  after  a  fire, 
leads  sheep  men,  cattle  and  pig  owners,  and  berry  pickers  to  set  fires. 
Vast  areas  are  annually  burned  over  in  the  United  States  for  these 
reasons.  Most  fires  run  only  along  the  surface  of  the  ground,  doing 
little  harm  to  the  big  timber,  and  if  left  alone  will  even  go  out  of 
themselves ;  but  if  the  duff  is  dry,  the  fire  may  smoulder  in  it  a  long 
time,  ready  to  break  out  into  flame  when  it  reaches  good  fuel  or 


EXHAUSTION  OF  THE  FOREST. 


253 


when  it  is  fanned  by  the  wind,  Fig.  105.  Even  these  ground  fires 
do  incalculable  damage  to  seeds  and  seedlings,  and  the  safest  plan  is 
to  put  out  every  fire  no  matter  how  small. 

Altho  it  is  true  that  the  loss  of  a  forest  is  not  irremediable  be- 
cause vegetation  usually  begins  again  at  once,  Fig.  106,  yet  the  actual 
damage   is   almost   incalculable. 
The    tract   may   lie    year    after 
year,  covered  with  only  worth- 
less  weeds   and   bushes,   and   if 
hilly,  the  region  at  once  begins 
to  be  eroded  by  the  rains. 

After  the  fire,  may  come 
high  winds  that  blow  down  the 
trunks  of  the  trees,  preparing 
material  for  another  fire,  Fig. 
107. 

The  statistics  of  the  actual 
annual  money  loss  of  the  tim- 
ber burned  in  the  United  States 
are  not  gathered.  In  1880 
Professor  Sargent  collected 
much  information,  and  in  the 
census  of  that  year  (10th  Cen- 
sus, Vol.  IX)  reported  10,000,- 
000  acres  burned  that  year  at 
a  value  of  $25,000,000. 

In  1891,  the  Division  of 
Forestry  collected  authentic 
records  of  12,000,000  acres 
burned  over  in  a  single  year, 
at  an  estimated  value  of  $50,- 
000,000. 

In  the  Adironacks  in  the 
spring  of  1903,  an  unprecedent- 
edly  dry  season,  fire  after  fire  caused  a  direct  loss  of  about  $3,500,000. 

In  1902,  a  fire  on  the  dividing  line  between  Washington  and  Ore- 
gon destroyed  property  amounting  to  $12,000,000.  Within  compara- 
tively recent  years,  the  Pacific  Coast  states  have  lost  over  $100,000,- 
000  worth  of  timber  by  fire  alone. 


Fig.  106.       Burned    Forest    of  Eng-elmann 
Spruce.     Foreground,  Lodgepole  Pine  Com- 
ing- in.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


254  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

During  September,  1908,  forest  fires  raged  in  Minnesota,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin,  Maine,  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The  estimates 
of  loss  for  northern  Michigan  alone  amounted  to  $40,000,000.  For 
two  weeks  the  loss  was  set  at  $1,000,000  a  day.  The  two  towns  of 


Fig-.  107.    Effect  of  Fire  and  Wind.    Colorado.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

Hibbing  and  Chisholm  were  practically  wiped  out  of  existence,  and 
296  lives  were  lost. 

Certain  forest  fires  have  been  so  gigantic  and  terrible  as  to  become 
historic. 

One  of  these  is  the  Miramichi  fire  of  1825.  It  began  its  greatest  de- 
struction about  one  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  October  7th  of  that  year,  at  a 
place  about  sixty  miles  above  the  town  of  Newcastle,  on  the  Miramichi  River, 
in  New  Brunswick.  Before  ten  o'clock  at  night  it  was  twenty  miles  below 
New  Castle.  In  nine  hours  it  had  destroyed  a  belt  of  forest  eighty  miles  long 
and  twenty-five  miles  wide.  Over  more  than  two  and  a  half  million  acres 
almost  every  living  thing  was  killed.  Even  the  fish  were  afterwards  found 
dead  in  heaps  on  the  river  banks.  Many  buildings  and  towns  were  destroyed, 
one  hundred  and  sixty  persons  perished,  and  nearly  a  thousand  head  of  stock. 
The  loss  from  the  Miramichi  fire  is  estimated  at  $300.000,  not  including 
the  value  of  the  timber.  (Pinchot,  Part  I,  p.  79-80.) 


EXHAUSTION   OF  THE  FOREST.  255 

Of  such  calamities,  one  of  the  worst  that  is  on  record  is  that  known  as 
the  Peshtigo  fire,  which,  in  1871,  during  the  same  month,  October,  when  Chi- 
cago was  laid  in  ashes,  devastated  the  country  about  the  shores  of  Green 
Bay  in  Wisconsin.  More  than  $3,000,000  worth  of  property  was  burnt,  at 
least  two  thousand  families  of  settlers  were  made  homeless,  villages  were 
destroyed  and  over  a  thousand  lives  lost.  (Bruncken,  p.  110.) 

The  most  destructive  fire  of  more  recent  years  was  that  which  started 
near  Hinckley,  Minn.,  September  1,  1894.  While  the  area  burned  over  was 
less  than  in  some  other  great  fires,  the  loss  of  life  and  property  was  very 
heavy.  Hinckley  and  six  other  towns  were  destroyed,  about  500  lives  were 
lost,  more  than  2,000  persons  were  left  destitute,  and  the  estimated  loss  in 
property  of  various  kinds  was  $25,000,000.  Except  for  the  heroic  conduct 
of  locomotive  engineers  and  other  railroad  men,  the  loss  of  life  would  have 
been  far  greater. 

This  fire  was  all  the  more  deplorable,  because  it  was  wholly  unnecessary. 
For  many  days  before  the  high  wind  came  and  drove  it  into  uncontrollable 
fury,  it  was  burning  slowly  close  to  the  town  of  Hinckley  and  could  have 
been  put  out.  (Pinchot,  Part  I,  82-83.) 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  features  of  these  "crown  fires,"  is  the 
rapidity  with  which  they  travel.  The  Miramichi  fire  traveled  nine 
miles  an  hour. 

To  get  an  idea  of  the  fury  of  a  forest  fire,  read  this  description 
from  Bruncken.  After  describing  the  steady,  slow  progress  of  a  duff 
fire,  he  proceeds : 

But  there  comes  an  evening  when  nobody  thinks  of  going  to  bed.  All 
day  the  smoke  has  become  denser  and  denser,  until  it  is  no  longer  a  haze,  but 
a  thick  yellowish  mass  of  vapor,  carrying  large  particles  of  sooty  cinders, 
filling  one's  eyes  and  nostrils  with  biting  dust,  making  breathing  oppressive. 
There  is  no  escape  from  it.  Closing  windows  and  doors  does  not  bar  it  out 
of  the  houses;  it  seems  as  if  it  could  penetrate  solid  walls.  Everything  it 
touches  feels  rough,  as  if  covered  with  fine  ashes.  The  heat  is  horrible  altho 
no  ray  of  sunshine  penetrates  the  heavy  pall  of  smoke. 

In  the  distance  a  rumbling,  rushing  sound  is  heard.  It  is  the  fire 
roaring  in  the  tree  tops  on  the  hill  sides,  several  miles  from  town.  This  is 
no  longer  a  number  of  small  fires,  slowly  smouldering  away  to  eat  up  a 
fallen  log;  nor  little  dancing  flames  running  along  the  dry  litter  on  the 
ground,  trying  to  creep  up  the  bark  of  a  tree,  where  the  lichens  are  thick 
and  dry,  but  presently  falling  back  exhausted.  The  wind  has  risen,  fanning 
the  flames  on  all  sides,  till  they  leap  higher  and  higher,  reaching  the  lower 
branches  of  the  standing  timber,  enveloping  the  mighty  boles  of  cork  pine 
in  a  sheet  of  flame,  seizing  the  tall  poles  of  young  trees  and  converting 
them  into  blazing  beacons  that  herald  the  approach  of  destruction.  Fiercer 
and  fiercer  blows  the  wind,  generated  by  the  fire  itself  as  it  sends  currents 
of  heated  air  rushing  upward  into  infinity.  Louder  and  louder  the  cracking 


256 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


of  the  branches  as  the  flames  seize  one  after  the  other,  leaping  from  crown 
to  crown,  rising  high  above  the  tree  tops  in  whirling  wreaths  of  fire,  and 
belching  forth  clouds  of  smoke  hundreds  of  feet  still  higher.  As  the  heated 
air  rises  more  and  more,  rushing  along  with  a  sound  like  that  of  a  thousand 
foaming  mountain  torrents,  burning  brands  are  carried  along,  whirling  on 
across  the  firmament  like  evil  spirits  of  destruction,  bearing  the  fire  miles 
away  from  its  origin,  then  falling  among  the  dry  brush  heaps  of  windfall  or 
slashing,  and  starting  another  fire  to  burn  as  fiercely  as  the  first.  *  *  * 
There  is  something  horrible  in  the  slow,  steady  approach  of  a  top  fire. 
It  comes  on  with  the  pitiless  determination  of  unavoidable  destiny,  not 
faster  than  a  man  can  walk.  But  there  is  no  stopping  it.  You  cannot  fight 
a  fire  that  seizes  tree  top  after  tree  top,  far  above  your  reach,  and  showers 
down  upon  the  pigmy  mortals  that  attempt  to  oppose  it  an  avalanch  of 
burning  branches,  driving  them  away  to  escape  the  torture  and  death  that 
threatens  them.  (Bruncken,  American  Forests  and  Forestry,  106-109.) 


Fig.  108.     Fig-hting-  Forest  Fire.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


Real  forest  fires  are  not  usually  put  out;  men  only  try  to  limit 
them.  A  common  method  of  limitation  is  to  cut  trenches  thru  the 
duff  so  that  the  fire  cannot  pass  across,  Fig.  108.  In  serious  cases 


EXHAUSTION  OF  THE    FOREST. 


257 


back  fires  are  built  on  the  side 
of  the  paths  or  roads  or  trenches 
toward  the  fire,  in  the  expecta- 
tion that  the  two  fires  will  meet. 
In  such  cases  great  care  has  to 
be  taken  that  the  back  fire  itself 
does  not  escape.  Small  fires, 
however,  can  sometimes  be  beaten 
out  or  smothered  with  dirt  and 
sand,  since  water  is  usually  un- 
available. 

But  "an  ounce  of  prevention 
is  worth  a  pound  of  cure."  One 
of  the  best  of  these  preventions 
is  a  system  of  fire  lanes.  Even 
narrow  paths  of  dirt  will  stop 
an  ordinary  fire.  Roads,  of 
course,  are  still  better.  Systems 
of  fire  lanes,  Fig.  109,  are  made 
India.  Belts  of  hardwood  trees 


Fig-.llO.  Look  out  for  Fire.  Rules  and  Laws 


Fig-.  109.  Fire  Lane.  Worcester  Co.,  Mass. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


great  use  of  in  Europe  and  British 
are  also  cultivated  along  railways, 
and  to  break  up  large  bodies 
of  conifers. 

If  in  lumbering^  the  slash 
were  destroyed  or  even  cut  up 
so  as  to  lie  near  the  ground 
and  rot  quickly,  many  fires 
would  be  prevented. 

Some  states,  as  New  York, 
have  a  fairly  well  organ- 
ized system  of  fire  wardens, 
who  have  the  authority  to 
draft  as  much  male  help  as 
they  need  at  $2.00  a  clay  to 
fight  forest  fires.  Unfortu- 
nately "ne'er-do-wells"  some- 
times set  fire  to  the  woods,  in 
order  to  "make  work"  for 
themselves.  Much  preventive 


258  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

work  is  also  done  by  educating  the  public  in  schools  and  by  the  post- 
ing of  the  fire  notices/  Fig.  110. 

DESTRUCTIVE   LUMBERING. 

How  the  reckless  and  destructive  methods  of  lumbering  common 
in  America  came  into  vogue,  is  worth  noting.2 

The  great  historical  fact  of  the  first  half  century  of  our  country 
was  the  conquest  of  the  wilderness.  That  wilderness  was  largely  an 
unbroken  forest.  To  the  early  settler,  this  forest  was  the  greatest  of 
barriers  to  agriculture.  The  crash  of  a  felled  tree  was  to  him  a 
symbol  of  advancing  civilization.  The  woods  were  something  to  be 
got  rid  of  to  make  room  for  farms,  Fig.  111.  In  Virginia,  for  ex- 
ample, where  the  soil  was  soon  exhausted  by  tobacco,  culture  and 
modern  fertilizers  were  unknown,  there  was  a  continual  advance  into 


'LOOK  OUT  FOR  FIRE! 
RULES  AND  LAWS. 

Fires  for  clearing  land  near  a  forest  must  not  be  started  until  the  trees 
are  in  full  leaf.  Before  lighting  such  fires  three  days'  notice,  at  least,  must 
be  given  to  the  Firewarden  and  occupants  of  adjoining  lands.  After  such 
fires  are  lighted,  competent  persons  must  remain  to  guard  them  until  the 
fire  is  completely  extinguished,  and  the  persons  starting  such  fires  will  be 
held  responsible  for  all  damages  notwithstanding  notice  had  been  given  to 
the  Firewarden. 

Fires  will  be  permitted  for  the  purposes  of  cooking,  warmth  and  insect 
smudges,  but  before  such  fires  are  kindled,  sufficient  space  around  the  spot 
where  the  fire  is  to  be  lighted  must  be  cleared  from  all  combustible  material; 
and  before  the  place  is  abandoned,  fires  so  lighted  must  be  thoroly  quenched. 

All  fires  other  than  those  hereinbefore  mentioned  are  absolutely  prohibited. 

Hunters  and  smokers  are  cautioned  against  allowing  fires  to  originate 
from  the  use  of  firearms,  cigars  and  pipes. 

Especial  care  should  be  taken  that  lighted  matches  are  extinguished  be- 
fore throwing  them  down. 

All  persons  are  warned  that  they  will  be  held  responsible  for  any  damage 
or  injury  to  the  forest  which  may  result  from  their  carelessness  or  neglect. 

Girdling  and  peeling  bark  from  standing  trees  on  state  land  is  prohib- 
ited. Fallen  timber  only  may  be  used  for  firewood. 

All  citizens  are  requested  to  report  immediately  any  cases  which  may 
come  to  their  knowledge  of  injury  to  woodlands  arising  from  a  violation 
of  these  rules. 

Then  follow  quotations  from  the  laws  of  the  state  of  New  York. 

2  For  the  common  methods  of  logging  see  Handwork  in  Wood,  Chapter  1 


EXHAUSTION  OF  THE  FOREST. 


259 


260 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


the  woods  to  plant  on  new  and  richer  land.  The  forest  was  also  full 
of  enemies  to  the  settler,  both  animals  and  IndianSj  and  was  a 
dreaded  field  for  fire.  So  there  grew  up  a  feeling  of  hate  and  feai 
for  the  forest. 

More  than  that  the  forest  seemed  exhaustless.  The  clearings  were 
at  first  only  specks  in  the  woods,  and  even  when  they  were  pushed 
farther  and  farther  back  from  the  seacoast,  there  was  plenty  of 
timber  beyond. 

The  idea  that  the  area  of  this  forest  could  ever  be  diminished  by  human 
hands  to  any  appreciable  extent  so  that  people  would  become  afraid  of  not 
having  woodland  enough  to  supply  them  with  the  needed  lumber,  would  have 
seemed  an  utter  absurdity  to  the  backwoodsman.  *  *  *  Thus  the  legend 
arose  of  the  inexhaustible  supply  of  lumber  in  American  forests,  a  legend 
which  only  within  the  last  twenty  years  has  given  place  to  juster  notions. 
(Bruncken,  p.  57.) 

This  tradition  of  abundant  supply  and  the  feeling  of  hostility  to 
the  forest  lasted  long  after  the  reasons  for  them  had  disappeared. 
When  we  remember  that  every  farm  in  the  eastern  United  States,  is 
made  from  reclaimed  forest  land  and  that  for  decades  lumber  was 


Fig.  112.     Redwood  Forest  Turned  Into  Pasture.    California. 
U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


always  within  reach  up  the  livers,  down  which  it  was  floated,  it  is 
not  strange  that  reckless  and  extravagant  methods  of  cutting  and 
using  it  prevailed. 

Following  the  settler  came  the  lumberman,  who  continued  the 
same  method  of  laying  waste  the  forest  land.  The  lumber  market 
grew  slowly  at  first,  but  later  developed  by  leaps  and  bounds,  until 
now  the  output  is  enormous. 


EXHAUSTION  OF  THE  FOREST.  261 

Lumbering  in  America  has  come  to  be  synonymous  with  the  clear- 
ing off  of  all  the  marketable  timber,  regardless  of  the  future.  It 
treats  the  forest  as  tho  it  were  a  mine,  not  a  crop,  Fig.  112.  Since 
1880  the  total  cut  has  been  over  700,000,000  feet,  enough  to  make  a 
one  inch  floor  over  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Ehode  Is- 
land and  Delaware,  or  one-half  of  the  State  of  New  York,  an  area 
of  25,000  square  miles. 

Other  countries,  too,  have  devastated  their  forests.  Portugal  has 
a  forest  area  of  only  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  land  area,  Spain  and 
Greece,  each  13  per  cent.,  Italy  14  per  cent,  and  Turkey  20  per  cent. 
Whether  the  destruction  of  the  American  forests  shall  go  as  far  as 
this  is  now  a  live  question  which  has  only  just  begun  to  be  appre- 
ciated. 

Another  reason  for  the  reckless  American  attitude  toward  the 
forest  is  the  frequency  and  severity  of  forest  fires.  This  has  led  to 
the  fear  on  the  part  of  lumbermen  of  losing  what  stumpage  they 
had,  and  so  they  have  cleared  their  holdings  quickly  and  sold  the 
timber.  Their  motto  was  "cut  or  lose." 

A  third  incentive  to  devastative  methods  was  the  levy  of  what 
were  considered  unjust  taxes. 

Hundreds  of  thousands  of  acres  in  the  white  pine  region,  notably  in 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  have  been  cut  over,  abandoned,  sold 
for  taxes,  and  finally  reduced  by  fire  to  a  useless  wilderness  because  of  the 
shortsighted  policy  of  heavy  taxation.  To  lay  heavy  taxes  on  timber  land 
is  to  set  a  premium  on  forest  destruction,  a  premium  that  is  doing  more 
than  any  other  single  factor  to  hinder  the  spread  of  conservative  lumbering 
among  the  owners  of  large  bodies  of  timber  land.  *  *  *  Heavy  taxes  are 
responsible  for  the  barrenness  of  thousands  of  square  miles  which  should 
never  have  ceased  to  be  productive,  and  which  must  now  lie  fallow  for  many 
decades  before  they  can  be  counted  again  among  the  wealth-making  assets 
of  the  nation.  (Pinchot,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1808,  pp.  184-185.) 

On  the  treatment  of  the  questions  of  fire  and  taxes  depends  the  future 
of  American  forest  industries.  (Bruncken,  p.  226.) 

Undoubtedly  much  waste  has  been  caused  by  sheer  ignorance  of 
forest  conditions  and  methods,  which,  if  followed,  would  secure  suc- 
cessive crops  instead  of  one,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  desire  for 
immediate  profits  has  been  the  dominant  cause  of  reckless  lumbering. 
So  short-sighted  has  the  policy  of  private  owners  proved  itself,  that 
it  is  a  question  whether  any  large  extent  of  forest  land  can  safely  be 
left  in  private  hands.  No  individual  lives  long  enough  to  reap  more 


262 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


than  one  forest  crop.  Only  corporations  and  States  can  be  expected 
to  have  an  interest  long  enough  continued  to  justify  the  methods  of 
conservative  lumbering. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  nearly  one-half  of  the  privately  owned  tim- 
ber of  the  United  States  is  held  by  195  great  holders,  the  principal 
ones  being  the  Southern  Pacific  Company,  the  Weyerhauser  Timber 
Company,  and  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  Company,  which  to- 
gether own  nearly  11  per  cent,  of  the  privately  owned  forests  of  the 
country.  These  large  holders  are  cutting  little  of  their  timber,  their 


Fig-.  113.    Red  Spruce  Used  in  Building-  Skidway,  and  Left  in  the  Woods. 
Hamilton  Co.,  New  York. 

object,  however,  being  not  so  much  to  conserve  the  forests  as  to  re- 
serve to  themselves  the  incalculable  private  profits  which  are  ex- 
pected to  come  with  the  future  enormous  increase  in  the  value  of 
timber. 

Over  against  this  policy,  stands  that  of  the  United  States  Forest 
Service  of  increasing  the  area  of  the  National  Forests  in  order  to 
conserve  them  for  the  public  welfare.  The  pity  is  that  the  govern- 
ment ever  let  the  forests  pass  out  of  its  hands.  Only  forty  years  ago 
seventy-five  per  cent,  of  the  timber  now  standing  was  publicly  owned. 


EXHAUSTION  OF  THE  FOREST. 


263 


about  eighty  per  cent,  of  it  is  privately  owned.  In  the  meanwhile 
its  value  has  increased  anywhere  from  ten  to  fifty  fold,  according  to 
locality.3  Some  large  corporations,  however,  like  the  Pennsylvania 
Railroad,  the  Kirby  Lumber  Company,  of  Texas,  and  the  Interna- 
tional Paper  Company,  have  entered  upon  a  policy  of  conservative 
lumbering. 

Of  the  actual  practices  which  distinguish  destructive  lumbering,  a 
few  may  be  cited.  Stumps  are  cut  too  high  and  tops  too  low.  Good 
lumber  is  wasted  on  lumber  roads  and  bridges,  Fig.  113.  Saplings  are 


Fig.  114.     Turpentine  Boxing,  Cup  System. 
Georgia.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 


torn  down  in  dragging  out  logs.  Slash  is  left  in  condition  to  foster 
fires  and  left  with  no  shade  protection.  Seedlings  are  smothered 
with  slash.  Seed  trees  are  all  cut  out  leaving  no  chance  for  repro- 
duction. Only  poorer  sorts  of  trees  are  left  standing,  thus  insuring 
deterioration.  Paper  pulp  cutting  goes  even  farther  than  lumbering, 
and  ordinarily  leaves  nothing  behind  but  a  howling  wilderness. 

The  production  of  turpentine  from  the  long-leaf  pine,  Fig.  114, 
at  the  annual  rate  of  40,000  barrels  has  meant  the  devastation  of 
70,000  acres  of  virgin  forest. 


3  See   Summary  of   Report  of  the  Commissioner   of   Corporations  on   the 
Lumber  Industry.     February  13,  1911.     Washington,  D.  C. 


264  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

In  view  of  this  wholesale  destruction  it  becomes  of  interest  to 
know  how  much  still  remains  of  the  timber  supply  of  the  United 
States.  The  latest  and  most  authoritative  estimate  of  standing  tim- 
ber in  continental  United  States,  excluding  Alaska,  gives  a  total  of 
2,800,000,000  M  feetB.M.,4  of  which  2,200,000,000  M  feet  are  pri- 
vately owned,  about  539,000,000  M  feet  are  in  the  National  Forests 
(Fig.  119,  p.  271,)  and  90,000,000  M  feet  are  on  the  unreserved  pub- 
lic lands,  National  parks,  State  lands  and  Indian  reservations. 

Earlier  estimates  were  hardly  more  than  guesses.  For  example 
the  census  of  1880  estimated  the  stumpage  of  the  U.  S.  at  856,290,- 
100  M  feet,  while  the  census  of  1900  gives  a  total  of  1,390,000,000 
M  feet.  The  discrepancy  appears  still  greater  when  it  is  remembered 
that  in  the  meantime  700,000,000  M  feet  were  cut.  Of  this  amount 
500,000,000  M  feet  were  of  conifers  or  80,000,000  M  feet  more  than 
were  included  in  the  estimate  of  1880.  The  simple  fact  is  of  course 
that  the  earlier  estimates  were  gross  underestimates,  due  to  the  fact 
that  they  were  based  on  entirely  inadequate  data,  and  therefore  can 
not  be  used  to  obscure  the  now  unquestionable  fact  that  the  timber 
supply  of  this  country  is  surely  and  rapidly  melting  away. 

The  Forest  Service  estimates  that  the  present  annual  cut  of  saw 
timber  is  about  50,000,000  M  feet.  At  this  rate  the  present  stand 
would  last  about  55  years  and  the  privately  owned  timber  only  44 
years.  This  estimate  does  not  allow  for  growth  and  decay. 

While  the  population  of  the  United  States  increased  52  per  cent, 
from  1880  to  1900,  during  the  same  period  the  lumber-cut  increased 
94  per  cent.  In  other  words  the  yearly  increase  in  use  is  20  to  25 
per  cent,  per  capita,  that  is,  fast  as  the  population  grows,  the  lumber 
consumption  increases  nearly  twice  as  fast.  This  increase  in  the 
lumber-cut  far  overbalances  the  growth  of  trees. 

It  is  also  to  be  remembered  that  this  increase  in  the  use  of  lum- 
ber is  in  spite  of  the  enormous  increase  of  substitutes  for  lumber, 
such  as  brick,  cement  and  steel  for  building,  and  steel  for  bridges, 
vehicles,  fences,  machinery,  tools,  and  implements  of  all  kinds. 

How  lavishly  we  use  lumber  may  further  be  appreciated  from  the 
fact  that  we  consume  260  cubic  feet5  per  capita,  while  the  average 
for  13  European  countries  is  but  49  cubic  feet  per  capita.  In  other 


*  A  board  foot  is  one  foot  square  and  one  inch  thick. 
5167  cubic  feet  equal  about  1000  board  feet. 


EXHAUSTION   OF  THE  FOREST. 


265 


words  every  person  in  the  U.  S;.  is  using  five  times  as  much  wood  as 
he  would  use  if  he  lived  in  Europe.  It  is  estimated  that  on  an  average 
each  person  in  this  country  uses  annually  the  product  of  25  acres  of 
forest.  The  country  as  a  whole,  cuts  every  year,  between  three  and 
four  times  more  wood  than  all  the  forests  grow  in  the  meantime.  By 
contrast,  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  cut  just  the  annual 
growth,  while  Russia,  Sweden  and  Japan,  cut  less  than  the  growth. 
In  other  words,  the  2,800,000,000,000  feet  B.M.  of  the  stumpage  of 
the  United  States  is  a  capital  which  is  constantly  drawn  upon, 
whereas,  the  944,700,000,000  board  feet  of  the  forest  of  the  German 


Lumber    Production  />y  Re  Q/ons.     1907 

1        0                                                     6M,,,t  of  *.<W  fat. 

/toe  fly  flouTitci'n  ^ro^i—  — 

Fig-.  115.  Southern  States  include:  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina, 
Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Texas  and  Okla- 
homa. 

Pacific  States  include:     Washington,  Oreg-on  and  California. 

North  Atlantic  States  include:  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  New 
Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland. 

Lake  States  Include:     Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 

Central  States  include:  Ohio,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  Missouri. 

Rocky  Mountain  State?  include:  Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Nevada,  Utah, 
Colorado,  Arizona,  and  New  Mexico. 

Empire  is  a  capital  which  is  untouched  but  produces  annually  300 
board  feet  per  acre. 

One  striking  evidence  of  the  decrease  of  the  timber  supply  is  the 
shifting  of  its  sources.  Once  the  northeastern  States  produced  over 
half  of  the  lumber  product.  They  reached  their  relative  maximum 
in  1870  when  they  produced  36  per  cent.  At  that  time  the  Lake 
States  produced  about  24  per  cent.  By  1890  the  Lake  States  came  to 
their  maximum  of  36  per  cent.  Today  the  southern  States  are  near 
their  maximum  with  41  per  cent.,  but  the  center  will  soon  shift  to 
the  Pacific  States.  Their  product  rose  from  less  than  10  per  cent,  of 
the  whole  in  1900  to  17  per  cent,  in  1908,  Figs.  115  and  116.  When 
that  virgin  forest  has  been  cut  off,  there  will  be  no  new  region  to 
exploit;  whereas,  heretofore,  when  a  region  was  exhausted,  the  lum- 
bermen have  always  had  a  new  one  to  which  to  move.  At  the  annual 


266 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


meeting  of  the  Northern  Pine  Manufacturers'  Association  in  Minne- 
apolis, Minn.,  January  22,  1907,  Secretary  J.  E.  Ehodes  made  this 
striking  statement: 

Since  1895,  248  firms,  representing  an  annual  aggregate  output  of  pine 
lumber  of  4*4  billion  feet,  have  retired  from  business,  due  to  the  exhaus- 
tion of  their  timber  supply.  Plants  representing  approximately  500  million 
feet  capacity,  which  sawed  in  1906,  will  not  be  operated  in  1907. 

The  shifting  of  the  chief  sources  of  supply  has,  of  course,  been  accom- 
panied by  a  change  in  the  kinds  of  lumber  produced.  There  was  a  time 
when  white  pine  alone  constituted  one-half  of  the  total  quantity.  In  1900 
this  species  furnished  but  21.5  per  cent.,  in  1904  only  15  per  cent.,  of  the 
lumber  cut.6  We  do  not  use  less  pine  because  we  have  found  something  bet- 
ter, but  because  we  have  to  put  up  with  something  worse. 

The  present  annual  cut  of  southern  yellow  pine  is  about  13*4 
million  M  feet,  or  a  little  less  than  one-third  of  the  total  cut  of  all 
the  species.  At  the  present  rate  of  consumption,  it  is  evident  that 

within  ten  or  fifteen  years, 
there  will  be  a  most  serious 
shortage  of  it.  Meanwhile  the 
cut  of  Douglas  fir  on  the  Pa- 
cific coast  has  increased  from  5 
per  cent,  of  the  total  lumber 
cut  in  1900  to  12  per  cent,  in 
1905.  This  increase  is  in  spite 
of  the  fact,  already  noted  (p. 
262)  that  the  great  timber 
owning  companies  of  the  north- 
west are  holding  their  stump- 
age  for  an  expected  great  in- 


Lumber     Production    £y     States. 
producing  «v«r   ont  billion    board  ftcf: 
/907. 

o        /         i        3        4 


fl/chigan 


Oregon 
ftortfi  Carolina 
Virginia. 
\*/e$t  Virginia 
Co  /i  form  a. 
Alabama 
flaine 


crease  in  value. 

Another   evidence   of   short- 
age  is  the   almost  total   disap- 
pearance    of     certain    valuable 
species.      Hickory,    which   once 
made     American     buggies     fa- 
mous, is  getting  very  scarce,  and  black  walnut  once  commonly  used 
for  furniture,  is  available  now  for  only  fine  cabinet  work,  veneers, 
gun  stocks,  etc.     Hardwoods  that  are  fit  for  the  saw  are  rapidly  de- 


Fig.  116. 


6  Forestry  Circular,  No.  97. 


EXHAUSTION  OF  THE  FOREST. 


267 


creasing.    The  hardwood  cut  of  1900  of  8,634,000  M  feet  diminished 
in  1904  to  6,781,000  M  feet. 

A  still  further  evidence  of  the  decreasing  supply,  is  the  rising 
scale  of  prices.  White  pine,  which  sold  for  $45.00  per  M  during 
1887-1892,  sold  for  $100.00  f.o.b.  N".  Y.,  Jan.  1,  1911.  Yellow 
poplar  went  up  in  the  same  period,  1887-1911,  from  $29.00  to  $63.00. 
Yellow  pine  rose  from  $18.00  in  1896  to  $47.00  in  1911,  and  hem- 


/s 

_    J  Q 

Lumbf 
O7 
05 
L       3       X 

r  Product/en   by  Species. 
Billions   of  board  feet 

i       5      6      76       9      yo     //      ji      A3     /4 

jO     '- 

_  _  . 

UteS/ern  Pir>V—— 

—  « 

M 

Poplar         ss=- 

f\e</6am     rs- 

GwTbi/f      s- 

Redwood      j^- 

^eec/7               .- 

^/rc/7             =• 
Bass               ^ 

A™h                ~r* 

Cedar         n. 

torch 

hicKor  y         r 

W/^/Ae  ^"r      • 

dugor  Pine: 
Tamarack  • 

Tupelo 

vJab™     - 

All  others  r. 

Fig.  117. 


lock,  the  meanest  of  all  woods,  from  $11.50  in  1889  to  $21.00  in 
1911,  Fig.  118. 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  moreover,  that  as  the  timber  in  any  re- 
gion becomes  scarcer,  the  minimum  cutting  limit  is  constantly  low- 
ered, and  the  standard  of  quality  constantly  depreciated.  Poorer 


268 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


tlOO 


95 


Q'QO'91  '9? '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '9  8 '99 '00  VI  '02  '03  04'05'06  '07 '08  W  '/O  '// 

Fig-.  118.    Wholesale  lumber  prices,  1887-1911. 

The  qualities  of  lumber  shown  in  the  above  chart  are  as  follows: 

White  Ash,  1st  and  2d,  1"  and  1^"  x  8"  and  up  by  12'  —  16'. 

Basswood,  1st  and  2d,  1"  x  8"  and  up  by  x  00". 

White  Oak,  quarter-sawed,  1st  and  2d,  all  figured,  1''  x  6''  and  up  x  10'  —  16'. 

Yellow  poplar,  1st  and  2d,  1"  x  7"  — 17"  x  12'  —  16'. 

Hemlock,  boards. 

Spruce,  No.  1  and  clear,  I"  and  1*4"  x  4"  x  13'. 

White  pine,  rough  uppers,  1"  x  8"  and  up  x  00'. 

Yellow  pine,  edge  grain  flooring-.    The  curve  is  approximately  correct,  for  the 
standard  of  quality  has  been  changed  several  times. 


10 


EXHAUSTION  OF  THE  FOREST.  269 

species  and  qualities  and  smaller  sizes,  which  were  once  rejected,  are 
now  accepted  in  the  market.  For  example,  6  inches  is  now  a  common 
cutting  diameter  for  pine  and  spruce,  whereas  12  inches  was  the 
minimum  limit,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  there  is  still  nothing  cut 
below  18  inches.  This  cutting  of  smaller  sizes  is  largely  due  to  the 
capacious  maw  of  the  pulp  mill,  which  swallows  even  the  poorest 
stuff.  Altho  the  amount  of  wood  used  for  paper  pulp  is  small  in 
comparison  with  the  total  lumber  production,  being  about  5.4  per 
cent.,  yet  this  cutting  of  young  growth  keeps  the  forest  land  devas- 
tated. In  1906  nearly  9,000,000  tons  of  wood  were  used  for  paper 
pulp  in  the  United  S.tates. 

No  one  who  is  at  all  familiar  with  the  situation  doubts  for  an  instant 
that  we  are  rapidly  using  up  our  forest  capital.  In  fact  it  is  unquestionably 
safe  to  say  that  our  present  annual  consumption  of  wood  in  all  forms  is 
from  three  to  four  times  as  great  as  the  annual  increment  of  our  forests. 
Even  by  accepting  the  highest  estimate  of  the  amount  of  timber  standing 
we  postpone  for  only  a  few  years  the  time  when  there  must  be  a  great  cur- 
tailment in  the  use  of  wood,  if  the  present  methods  of  forest  exploitation 
are  continued.  Every  indication  points  to  the  fact  that  under  present  con- 
ditions the  maximum  annual  yield  of  forest  products  for  the  country  as  a 
whole  has  been  reached,  and  that  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  there  will 
be  a  marked  decrease  in  the  total  output,  as  there  is  now  in  several  items. 
(Kellogg,  Forestry  Circular,  No.  97,  p.  12.) 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  there  are  influ- 
ences which  tend  to  save  and  extend  the  forest  area,  These  will  be 
considered  in  the  next  chapter,  on  the  Use  of  the  Forest. 


270  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


THE    EXHAUSTION    OF    THE    FOREST. 
REFERENCES : * 

(1)  Fires. 

Bruncken,   pp.    183-207.  Pinchot,   Primer,   pp.   77-88. 

Pinchot,    Agric.    Yr.    Bk.,  p.     Roth,  First  Book,  pp.  104-112. 

189-  Sterling,    Agric.    Yr.    Bk.,    1904,    p. 

Suter,    For.    Circ.    No.    36.  133. 

U.    S.   Tenth   Census,   Vol. 

IX,   p.   491   ff. 

(2)  Destructive  Lumbering. 

The  Settler's  Tradition. 

Bruncken,    pp.    40-59,    94.  J'inchot,   Primer,   II,  p.   82. 

Roth,  First  Book,  pp.  41-45. 

Taxation. 
For.   and  Irr.,   April,  '06.  Pinchot,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1898,  p.  184. 

Reckless  Practices. 

Pinchot,    Primer   II,    42-47.  Peters,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1905,  pp.  483- 

494. 

Pinchot,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1898,  Graves,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1899    p.  415. 

p.    184. 

Pinchot,  For.  Circ.,  No.  25,  Suter,  For.  Bull.,  26,  pp.  58,  69,   76. 

P-  1L  Mohr,  For.  Bull.  No.   13,  p.' 61. 
Price,    Agric.    Yr.    Bk.,    1902, 

P-    310.  Bruncken,   pp.   90-98. 
Fox,  For.  Bull.,  No.  34,  p.  40. 

The  Timber  Supply. 

Kellogg,  For.  Circ.,  No.  97. .  .     Fernow,   Economics,   pp.   35-45. 

Zon,  For.  Bull.,  No.  83.  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  Cor- 

porations on  the  Lumber  Indus- 
try, Part  I,  Feb.  13,  1911. 


*For  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
THE  USE  OF  THE  FOREST. 

Man's  relation  to  the  forest  has  not  been  entirely  destructive  and 
injurious.  He  has  exerted  and  is  more  and  more  exerting  influences 
which  while  still  enabling  him  to  use  the  forest,  also  preserve  and 
improve  it.  These  activities  may  all  be  included  under  the  term 
Forestry. 

The  objects  of  modern  forestry  then  are  threefold:  1.  The  utili- 
zation of  the  forest  and  its  products,  the  main  object;  2.  The  preser- 


Fig.  119.     National  Forests  in  the  United  States. 

vation  of  the  forest,  i.  e.f  its  continued  reproduction;   3.  The  improve- 
ment of  the  forest. 

UTILIZATION. 

The  uses  of  the  forest  are  threefold:  (1)  Protective,  (2)  Pro- 
ductive, and  (3)  Esthetic. 

(1)  Protective.  The  forest  may  be  used  as  a  protection  against 
floods,  wind,  shifting  sand,  heat,  drought,  etc.  The  National  Forests 
of  the  United  States,  Fig.  119,  with  the  state  forests,  which  include 

271 


272 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


THE   USE   OP   THE   FOREST. 


273 


274  WOOD   AND   FOREST. 

one-fifth  of  the  total  forest  area,  are  largely  treated  as  "protection 
forests"  to  maintain  the  head  waters  of  streams,  Fig.  120,  used  for 
irrigation,  for  power  or  for  commerce.  The  attempt  now  being  made 
to  reserve  large  areas  in  the  White  Mountains  and  southern  Appa- 
lachians is  chiefly  for  this  purpose  of  protection. 

A  comparison  of  Figs.  120  and  121  shows  clearly  the  difference 
between  a  region  protected  by  forest  and  one  unprotected.1 

(2)  Productive.  All  practical  foresters  have  as  their  first  aim  the 
yield  of  the  forest.  This  distinguishes  forestry  from  landscape  archi- 
tecture, the  object  of  which  may  equally  be  the  preservation  and  im- 
provement of  a  given  tract.  The  crop  to  be  produced  is  as  truly  the 
prime  concern  of  the  forester  as  the  raising  of  agricultural  crops  is 
the  prime  concern  of  the  farmer.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  forestry 
is  said  to  be  the  same  thing  as  conservative  lumbering,  Fig.  122.  The 
prejudice  of  lumbermen  against  forestry  has  arisen  from  a  misun- 
derstanding of  its  aim.  Its  aim  is  not  to  prevent  the  cutting  down 
of  trees,  but  to  direct  their  cutting  in  such  ways  that  in  the  future 
there  will  still  be  trees  to  cut.  "Thru  use  to  a  greater  use/5  is  the 
motto  of  the  Forest  Service.  The  difference  between  destructive  lum- 
bering and  conservative  lumbering  is  that  the  former  cuts  one  crop 
regardless  of  the  future ;  while  the  latter  plans  to  cut  crop  after  crop 
indefinitely.  In  other  words,  in  conservative  lumbering,  the  trees  to 
be  cut  are  not  selected  solely  with  reference  to  their  immediate  mar- 
ket value.  Not  one  crop,  but  many,  is  the  forester's  motto. 

So  long  as  the  supply  seemed  exhaustless,  forests  might  be  and 
were  treated  as  mines  are,  i.  e.,  exploited  for  the  sake  of  immediate 
profit;  but  now  that  lumbermen  begin  to  realize  that  the  end  of  the 
supply  is  in  sight,  more  conservative  methods  are  being  adopted.  We 
cannot  afford  to  kill  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs.  In  order 
then  to  obtain  as  rich  harvests  as  possible,  the  modern  forester  makes 
use  of  various  methods,  some  negative,  some  positive. 

Waste  is  avoided  in  all  possible  ways,  stumps  are  cut  low  and  tops 
high  on  the  trunk,  first  class  trees  are  not  used  for  skids,  bridges, 
roads,  etc.,  care  is  taken  in  "falling"  trees  and  in  dragging  out  logs, 
that  they  will  not  injure  other  trees.  Just  as  economical  disposal  of 
the  log  has  already  been  carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection  in  the 


*A  concise  and  interesting  statement  of  the  relation  of  the  forest  to 
rain  and  floods  is  to  be  found  in  Pinchot:  Primer  of  Forestry,  Bulletin  No. 
24,  Part  II,  Chap.  III. 


THE   USE    OF    THE   FOREST. 


275 


saw-mill,    (see  Handwork  in   Word,   Chapter  II,)    so  one  object  of 
forestry  is  to  carry  this  economy  back  into  the  woods. 

One  of  the  underlying  ideas  in  conservative  lumbering  is  that  the 
"yield,"  i.  e.,  the  amount  of  wood  taken  out  of  a  healthy  forest  in  a 
given  time,  shall  be  equal  to  the  amount  grown  during  the  same 
period.  If  less  is  taken  out  than  grows,  some  trees  will  overmature 


Fig-.  142.    Conservative  Lumbering-.    Black  Hills  National  Forest,  South  Dakota.   Note 
the  brush,  cord-wood,  and  logs  piled  separately, — a  fine  clean  up.     Nothing- 
cut  below  12"  diameter.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

and  decay;  if  more  is  taken  out  than  grows,  the  forest  will  ulti- 
mately be  exhausted. 

This  principle  may  be  carried  out  in  a  number  of  ways;  but  in 
any  case  it  is  necessary  to  know  how  fast  the  forest  is  reproducing 
itself,  and  this  is  one  of  the  functions  of  the  forester.  The  United 
States  Forest  Service  makes  a  definite  offer  of  cooperation  with 
farmers  and  lumbermen  and  owners  of  forests  to  provide  them  with 
skilled  foresters  for  direction  in  this  matter. 

In  the  United  States,  the  most  practicable  way  of  determining  the 
yield  is  by  area,  i.  e.,  a  certain  fraction  of  a  forest  is  to  be  cut  over 


276  WOOD  AND   FOREST. 

once  in  a  given  length  of  time,  a  year  or  longer.  The  time  between 
two  successive  cuttings  on  the  same  area  must  be  long  enough  to  allow 
the  young  trees  left  standing  to  ripen. 

In  a  word,  conservative  lumbering  involves  (1)  the  treatment  of 
the  forest  as  a  source  of  crops,  (2)  systematic  gathering,  and  (3) 
young  growth  so  left  as  to  replace  the  outgo. 

The  important  place  that  forests  fill  in  the  national  economy  may 
be  realized  partly  by  the  citation  of  a  few  facts  as  to  the  forest 
products.  The  lumber  industry  is  the  fourth  in  value  of  products 
among  the  great  manufacturing  industries  of  the  United  States,  be- 
ing exceeded  only  by  the  iron  and  steel,  the  textile,  and  the  meat 
industries.  It  turns  out  a  finished  product  worth  $567,000,000.00. 
And  yet  lumber  constitutes  only  about  one-half  of  the  value  of  the 
total  output  of  forest  products.  Its  annual  value  is  three-fourths  of 
a  billion  dollars,  ($666,641,367  in  1907,)  while  the  annual  value  of 
wood  fuel,  is  $350,000,000.  More  than  two-thirds  of  the  people 
burn  wood  for  fuel.  The  next  largest  single  item  in  the  list  is  shin- 
gles and  laths,  $32,000,000.  (See  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  74,  p.  7.) 

Outside  of  food  products,  no  material  is  so  universally  used  and  so 
indispensable  in  human  economy  as  wood.  (Fernow,  Econ.,  p.  21.) 

The  importance  of  forest  products  may  also  be  learned  from  a 
mere  list  of  the  varied  uses  to  which  they  are  put.  Such  a  list  would 
include:  fuel,  wood  and  charcoal;  houses  (over  half  the  population 
of  the  United  States  live  in  wooden  houses)  ;  the  wooden  parts  of 
masonry  and  steel  buildings;  scaffolding;  barns,  sheds  and  out- 
houses; ships,  with  all  their  parts,  and  the  masts  and  trim  of  steel 
ships,  boats  and  canoes;  oars  and  paddles;  railway  ties  (annual  ex- 
penditure $50,000,000),  railway  cars,  a  million  in  number;  trestles 
and  bridges  (more  than  2,000  miles  in  length)  ;  posts  and  fencing; 
cooperage  stock  (low  estimate,  $25,000,000  annually)  ;  packing 
crates,  including  coffins;  baskets;  electric  wire  poles  (annual  cost 
about  $10,000,000)  ;  piles  and  submerged  structures,  like  canal  locks 
and  water-wheels;  windmills;  mining  timbers  (yearly  cost,  $7,500,- 
000),  indispensable  in  all  mining  operations  (for  every  100  tons  of 
coal  mined,  2  tons  of  mining  timber  are  needed)  ;  street  paving; 
veneers  ($5,000,000.00  worth  made  annually)  ;  vehicles,  including 
carriages,  wagons,  automobiles  and  sleighs;  furniture;  machines  and 
their  parts;  patterns  for  metal  molding;  tools  and  tool  handles; 


THE   USE   OF   THE   FOREST.  277 

musical  instruments;  cigar  boxes;  matches;  toothpicks;  pencils; 
(315  million  a  year  in  the  U.  S.,  requiring  over  7  million  cubic  feet 
of  wood);  engraving  blocks;  shoe  lasts,  shoe  trees  and  parts  of 
shoes;  hat  blocks;  agricultural  implements;  hop  and  bean  poles; 
playthings  and  toys,  for  both  children  and  adults;  Christmas  trees 
and  decorations;  pipes;  walking  sticks;  umbrella  handles;  crutches 
and  artificial  limbs;  household  utensils;  excelsior. 

Products  other  than  wood:  Turpentine  and  resin  (worth  $20,- 
000,000  a  year;  tar;  oils;  tan-bark,  \y2  million  cords  worth  $13.- 
000,000  a  year;  wood  alcohol;  wood  pulp  (worth  $15,000,000  a  year)  ; 
nuts;  cellulose  for  collars,  combs  and  car  wheels;  balsam,  medi- 
cines; lampblack;  dyes;  paper  fiber  (xylolin)  for  textiles;  shellac 
and  varnish  ($8,500,000  worth  imported  in  1907)  ;  vinegar  and  acetic 
acid;  confections  (including  maple  sugar  and  syrup  at  $2,500,000  a 
year). 

(3)  The  Esthetic  and  sentimental  uses  of  the  forest,  tho  not  to 
be  estimated  in  dollars  and  cents,  are  nevertheless  of  incalculable 
benefit  to  the  community.  They  would  include  the  use  of  the  forest 
as  pleasure  grounds,  for  hunting,  fishing,  camping,  photography,  and 
general  sightseeing.  Notable  instances  of  the  growing  appreciation 
of  these  uses  of  the  forest  are  the  reservation  of  the  Yellowstone  and 
Yosemite  Parks  as  pleasure  grounds. 

PRESERVATION. 

The  second  object  of  forestry  is  the  preservation  of  the  forest,  or 
continued  reproduction. 

In  addition  to  obtaining  crops  of  trees,  the  forester  plans  to  keep 
the  forest  in  such  condition  that  it  will  constantly  reproduce  itself 
and  never  become  exhausted. 

This  does  not  mean  that  no  forests  are  to  be  cut  down,  or  that  a 
given  area,  once  a  forest,  is  to  be  always  a  forest.  Just  as  the  indi- 
vidual farmer  needs  some  land  for  fields,  some  for  pasture,  and  some 
for  woodlots,  so  the  nation  needs  some  for  cities,  some  for  farms, 
some  for  pleasure  grounds,  and  some  for  forests.  But  it  does  mean 
that  fruitful  forests  shall  not  be  turned  into  wildernesses  as  thous- 
ands of  square  miles  nowr  are,  by  the  methods  of  destructive  lum- 
bering. 

In  general,  better  land  is  necessary  for  agriculture  than  for  for- 
estry, and  it  is  therefore  only  the  part  of  wisdom  to  use  the  better 


278 


WOOD   AND   FOREST. 


climatic  and  partly  historical. 


land  for  fields  and  reserve  the  poorer  land  for  forests.  There  are  in 
the  United  States  enormous  regions  that  are  fit  for  nothing  but  for- 
ests, but  many  of  these,  as  in  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Michigan, 
have  simply  been  denuded  of  their  trees  and  no  provision  has  been 
made  for  their  reproduction.  This  then  is  the  second  aim  of  for- 
estry,— to  treat  the  forest  so  that  it  will  continue  to  reproduce  itself. 
In  order  to  obtain  this  result,  certain  forest  conditions  have  to  be 
preserved.  What  these  conditions  are,  we  have  already  noticed  (see 
Chap.  V,  The  Forest  Organism).  They  are  partly  topographical  and 

They  include  such  factors  as,  soil, 
moisture,  temperature,  and  light, 
the  forest  cover,  the  forest  floor, 
the  density  and  mixture  of 
growth,  all  conditions  of  forest 
growth.  It  is  only  as  the  for- 
ester preserves  these  conditions, 
or  to  put  it  otherwise,  it  is  only 
as  he  obeys  the  laws  of  the  forest 
organism  that  he  can  preserve 
the  forest.  For  a  long  period 
of  our  national  history,  we  Amer- 
icans were  compelled  to  conform 
our  life  and  institutions  to  the 
presence  of  the  primeval  forest, 
but  by  long  observation  of  what 
happens  naturally  in  the  forest, 
there  have  been .  developed  in 
chestnut  coppice,  u.  s.  Forest  Europe  and  in  America  certain 

Service. 

ways  of  handling  it  so  as  to  make 
it  our  servant  and  not  our  master. 

These  ways  are  called  silvicultural  systems.  They  are  all  based 
.  on  the  nature  of  the  forest  itself,  and  they  succeed  only  because  they 
are  modifications  of  what  takes  place  naturally  in  the  woods. 

As  we  have  seen  above  (p.  220)  trees  reproduce  themselves  either 
by  sprouts  or  by  seeds.  This  fact  gives  rise  to  two  general  methods 
of  reproduction,  called  the  coppice  systems  and  the  seed  systems. 

Coppice,  Fig.  123.  In  the  simpler  form  of  this  system,  the  forest 
is  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  parts,  say  thirty,  and  one  part  is 
cut  down  each  year.  New  sprouts  at  once  start. up,  which  will  ma- 


123. 


THE   USE   OF    THE   FOREST. 


279 


ture  a  year  later  than  those  in  the  part  cut  the  previous  year.  Where 
the  trees  of  each  part  are  thirty  years  old  at  cutting,  thirty  years  is 
called  the  "rotation  period."  The  coppice  is  said  to  be  managed  on 
a  thirty-year  rotation.  The  system  is  widely  used  in  eastern  United 
States,  for  fuel,  posts,  charcoal,  railway  ties,  and  other  small  stuff, 
as  well  as  for  tan-bark.  This  system  is  modified  by  maintaining  an 
overwood  composed  of  seedling  trees  or  selected  sprouts  above  a 
stand  of  sprouts.  This  is  called  the  Reserve  Sprout  method  and  is 
used  with  admirable  results  by  the  French. 

Seed  Forests.    In  contrast  with  coppice  forests,  those  raised  from 
seeds  produce  the  best  class  of  timber,  such  as  is  used  for  saw  logs. 

Seeding  from  the  side,  Fig. 
124.  Many  forests  naturally 
spread  at  their  borders  from 
the  scattering  of  their  seeds. 
"Old  field  pine"  is  so  called 
from  its  tendency  to  spread  in 
this  way  on  old  fields.  This 
natural  "Seeding  from  the 
Side"  has  given  rise  to  the 
"Group  System,"  in  which  an 
area  of  ripe  trees  is  cut  off  and 
the  trees  alongside  are  de- 
pended upon  to  reproduce  new 
ones  on  the  cut-over  area.  The 
openings  are  gradually  enlarged 
until  all  the  old  timber  is  cut 
out,  and  the  young  growth  has 
taken  its  place.  In  its  best 
form  there  is  a  definite  "rota- 
tion period,"  say  eighty  years. 

This  system  is  simple,  safe,  and  very  useful,  especially  for  small  open- 
ings in  woodlots.  A  modification  of  this  is  the  "Strip  System,"  in 
which  long  narrow  openings,  say  seventy-five  yards  wide,  are  cut  out 
and  gradually  widened.  The  strips  are  cut  in  the  proper  direction 
so  that  the  prevailing  winds  will  cross  them,  both  for  the  sake  of 
avoiding  windfalls  and  to  help  scatter  the  seed.  Where  the  soil  is 
very  dry,  the  strips  may  run  east  and  west  to  protect  the  seedlings 
from  the  sun. 


Fig-.  124.  Seeding- from  the  Side.  White  Pine. 
New  Hampshire.     U.S.  Forest  Service. 


280 


WOOD   AND   FOREST. 


Selection  Forests.  The  typical  virgin  forest,  Fig.  125,  is  one  in 
which  trees  of  all  ages  are  closely  intermingled,  and  it  may  be  either 
"mixed"  or  "pure."  If  a  farmer  had  a  woodlot  of  this  character  and 


Fig.  125.    Virgin  Forest,  Trees  of  All  Ages.    Jackson  Co.,  North  Carolina. 
U.S.  Forest  Service. 


every  year  went  over  it  with  the  ax,  cutting  out  such  trees  as  he 
needed  for  his  purpose,  and  also  trees  whose  removal  would  improve 
the  woods,  but  taking  care  not  to  cut  out  each  year  more  than  the 


THE   USE   OF    THE   FOREST.  281 

amount  of  the  average  growth,  he  would  be  using  the  "Selection 
System."  This  system  is  the  best  way  of  keeping  a  forest  dense  and 
of  preserving  one  which  is  difficult  to  start  afresh,  as  on  a  mountain 
slope;  it  is  practicable  where  the  woods  are  small  or  under  a  high 
state  of  care,  as  in  Europe,  where  this  system  has  been  in  use  for 
seven  centuries.  But  the  cost  of  road  maintenance  and  of  logging  is 
high  and  it  is  therefore  impracticable  in  most  lumber  regions  in  the 
United  States,  except  for  woods  of  especial  value,  like  black  walnut. 

Localized  Selection.  If  instead  of  the  whole  forest  being  treated 
in  this  way  every  year,  it  were  divided  up  into  perhaps  twenty  parts, 
and  from  each  part  there  were  taken  out  each  year  as  much  lumber 
as  would  equal  the  annual  growth  of  the  whole  forest,  such  a  system 
would  be  called  "Localized  Selection."  The  cost  of  logging  would  be 
greatly  reduced  and  if  care  were  taken  to  leave  standing  some  seed 
trees  and  to  cut  no  trees  below  a  determined  size,  as  twelve  inches,  the 
forest  would  maintain  itself  in  good  condition.  This  system  has  been 
applied  with  great  success  in  certain  private  forests  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks. 

Regular  Seed  Forest  or  High  Forest.  In  the  system  already  men- 
tioned above  of  seeding  from  the  side,  the  trees  near  the  cut  areas 
are  depended  upon  to  seed  these  areas.  Moreover,  no  especial  pains 
are  taken  to  preserve  the  forest  floor  and  the  forest  cover.  But  all 
trees  do  not  bear  seeds  annually,  nor  do  their  seedlings  thrive  under 
such  conditions.  In  other  words,  in  some  forests  especial  pains  must 
be  taken  to  secure  reproduction,  and  the  forest  conditions  must  be 
maintained  with  special  reference  to  the  growing  crop.  For  this  pur- 
pose, the  cuttings  take  place  thru  a  series  of  years,  sometimes  lasting 
even  twenty  years.  These  reproduction  cuttings  have  reference,  now 
to  a  stimulus  to  the  seed  trees,  now  to  the  preparation  of  the  seed 
bed,  now  to  the  encouragement  of  the  seedlings.  Then  later,  the  old 
crop  is  gradually  cut  away.  Later  still,  in  twenty  or  thirty  years,  the 
new  forest  is  thinned,  and  when  it  reaches  maturity,  perhaps  in  one 
hundred  or  two  hundred  years,  the  process  is  repeated.  This  is 
called  the  "Kegular  Seed  Forest."  It  produces  very  valuable  timber, 
and  has  been  used  for  a  long  time  in  Switzerland,  especially  for  beech 
and  balsam. 

The  system  is  complicated  and  therefore  unsafe  in  ignorant  hands, 
and  the  logging  is  expensive. 


282 


WOOD  AND  FOREST. 


Two-storied  Seed  Forest.  A  modification  of  the  system  of  Kegu- 
lar  Seed  Forest  is  the  planting  of  another  and  a  tolerant  species  of 
tree  under  older  intolerant  trees  to  make  a  cover  for  the  soil,  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  grass  and  weeds,  and  to  improve  the  quality  of 
the  upper  growth.2 

An  illustration  of  a  natural  two-storied  seed  forest  is  shown  in 
Fig.  126. 

Planting.  The  planting  of  forest  trees  is  a  comparatively  unim- 
portant part  of  modern  forestry.  It  is  a  mistaken  idea,  not  uncom- 


•  No.  126.    Two-storied  Seed  Forest.    Fir  under  Beech,  Germany.     U.S.  Forest  Service. 


mon,  that  the  usual  way  of  reproducing  forests  is  to  plant  trees.  It  is 
true  that  in  the  pineries  of  North  Germany  and  in  the  spruce  forests 
of  Saxony,  it  is  common  to  cut  clean  and  then  replant,  but  it  is  ab- 
surd to  conclude,  as  some  have  done,  that  forestry  consists  of  planting 
a  tree  every  time  one  is  cut.  Even  if  planting  were  the  best  method, 
many  more  than  one  tree  would  have  to  be  planted  for  each  one  cut, 

2  For  an  interesting  account  of  an  application  of  this  method,  see  Ward, 
p.  35. 


THE   USE   OF   THE   FOREST. 


283 


in  order  to  maintain  the  forest.     So  far  as  America  is  concerned,  not 
for  a  long  time  will  planting  be  much  used  for  reproduction. 

The  greater  portion  of  American  woodlands  is  in  the  condition  of  culled 
forests,  that  is,  forests  from  which  the  merchantable  trees  have  been  cut, 
leaving  the  younger  individuals,  as  well  as  all  trees  belonging  to  unmarket- 
able species.  Even  on  the  areas  where  the  lumbermen  have  made  a  clean 
cut  of  the  original  timber,  new  trees  will  come  up  of  themselves  from  seeds 
blown  from  the  surrounding  forests  or  falling  from  occasional  individuals 
left  standing.  (Bruncken,  p.  133.) 

The  usefulness  of  planting  in  America  is  mainly  for  reclaiming 
treeless  regions,  as  in  the  west,  and  where  timber  is  high  pricedu  The 


Fig-.  127.    Planted  White  Pine,  Fifty  Years  Old, 
Bridgewater,  Mass.     U.  S.  Forest  Service. 

area  of  planted  timber  in  the  Middle  West  aggregates  many  hundred 
thousand  acres,  once  waste  land,  now  converted  into  useful  woods.3 

3  To  encourage  such  forest  extension,  the  Forest  Service  is  doing  much 
by  the  publication  of  bulletins  recommending  methods  and  trees  suited  to 
special  regions,  as,  e.  g.,  on  Forest  Planting  in  Illinois,  in  the  Sand  Hill 
Region  of  Nebraska,  on  Coal  Lands  in  Western  Pennsylvania,  in  Western 
Kansas,  in  Oklahoma  and  adjacent  regions,  etc. 


284  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

Planting  has  been  made  possible  in  the  far  west  by  extensive  irri- 
gation systems,  and  farther  east  by  the  lessening  of  prairie  fires, 
which  once  set  the  limit  to  tree  growth  in  the  prairie  states.  In  many 
parts  of  Illinois,  southern  Wisconsin  and  other  prairie  States,  there 
is  much  more  forest  land  than  there  was  twenty-five  years  ago. 

What  planting  can  do,  may  be  seen  on  some  worn  out  pastures  in 
New  England,  Fig.  127.  With  the  western  movement  of  agriculture, 
the  abandoned  farms  of  New  England  are  to  some  extent  becoming 
re-forested,  both  naturally  and  by  planting,  as  with  white  pine,  which 
grows  even  on  sandy  soil.  Between  1820  and  1880,  there  was  a 
period  of  enthusiastic  white-pine  planting  in  New  England,  and  tho 
the  interest  died  on  account  of  the  cheap  transportation  of  western 
lumber,  those  early  plantations  prove  that  white  pine  can  be  planted 
at  a  profit  even  on  sand  barrens.  Once  worn  out  and  useless  pas- 
tures are  now  worth  $150  an  acre  and  produce  yearly  a  net  income 
of  $3  or  more  an  acre. 

IMPROVEMENT. 

Besides  utilization  and  preservation,  the  third  main  object  of  for- 
estry is  the  improvement  of  the  forest.  It  is  not  an  uncommon  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  the  virgin  forest  is  the  best  forest  for  human 
purposes.  It  is  a  comparatively  new  idea,  especially  in  America, 
that  a  forest  can  be  improved ;  that  is,  that  better  trees  can  be  raised 
than  those  which  grow  naturally.  Lumbermen  commonly  say,  "You 
never  can  raise  a  second  growth  of  white  pine  as  good  as  the  first 
growth."  As  if  this  "first  growth"  were  not  itself  the  successsor  of 
thousands  of  other  generations !  There  is  even  a  legend  that  white 
pine  will  not  grow  in  its  old  habitat.  Says  Bruncken, 

Many  people  probably  imagine  that  a  primeval  wood,  "by  nature's 
own  hand  planted,"  cannot  be  surpassed  in  the  number  and  size  of  its  trees, 
and  consequently  in  the  amount  of  wood  to  be  derived  from  it.  But  the 
very  opposite  is  true.  No  wild  forest  can  ever  equal  a  cultivated  one  in 
productiveness.  To  hope  that  it  will,  is  very  much  as  if  a  farmer  were  to 
expect  a  full  harvest  from  the  grain  that  may  spring  up  spontaneously  in 
his  fields  without  his  sowing.  A  tract  of  wild  forest  in  the  first  place  does 
not  contain  so  many  trees  as  might  grow  thereon,  but  only  so  many  as  may 
have  survived  the  struggle  for  life  with  their  own  and  other  species  ol 
plants  occupying  the  locality.  Many  of  the  trees  so  surviving  never  attain 
their  best  development,  being  suppressed,  overshadowed,  and  hindered  by 
stronger  neighbors.  Finally  much  of  the  space  that  might  be  occupied  by 
valuable  timber  may  be  given  up  to  trees  having  little  or  no  market  value. 


THE   USE   OF    THE   FOREST.  285 

The  rule  is  universal  that  the  amount  and  value  of  material  that  can  be 
taken  from  an  area  of  wild  forest  remains  far  behind  what  the  same  land 
may  bear  if  properly  treated  by  the  forester.  It  is  certain,  therefore,  that 
in  the  future,  when  most  American  forests  shall  be  in  a  high  state  of  cul- 
tivation, the  annual  output  of  forests  will,  from  a  much  restricted  area,  ex- 
ceed everything  known  at  the  present  day  (Bruncken,  North  American 
Forests  and  Forestry,  pp.  134-135  ) 

It  is  probable  that  the  virgin  forest  produces  but  a  tithe  of  the  useful 
material  which  it  is  capable  of  producing.  (Fernow,  p.  98.) 

Mr.  Burbank  has  demonstrated  that  trees  can  be  bred  for  any  particu- 
lar quality, — for  largeness,  strength,  shape,  amount  of  pitch,  tannin,  sugar 
and  the  like,  and  for  rapidity  of  growth;  in  fact  that  any  desirable  attri- 
bute of  a  tree  may  be  developed  simply  by  breeding  and  selecting.  He  has 
created  walnut  trees,  by  crossing  common  varieties,  that  have  grown  six 
times  as  much  in  thirteen  years  as  their  ancestors  did  in  twenty-eight  years, 
preserving  at  the  same  time,  the  strength,  hardness  and  texture  of  their 
forebears.  The  grain  of  the  wood  has  been  made  more  beautiful  at  the  same 
time.  The  trees  are  fine  for  fuel  and  splendidly  adapted  to  furniture  manu- 
facture. (Harwood.  The  New  Earth,  p.  179.) 

Nature  provides  in  the  forest  merely  those  varieties  that  will  sur- 
vive. Man,  by  interfering  in  Nature's  processes  but  obeying  her  laws, 
raises  what  he  wants.  Nature  says:  those  trees  that  survive  are  fit 
and  does  not  care  whether  the  trees  be  straight  or  crooked,  branched 
or  clear.  Man  says:  those  trees  shall  survive  which  are  fit  for  human 
uses.  Man  raises  better  grains  and  fruits  and  vegetables  than  Na- 
ture, unaided,  can,  and,  in  Europe,  better  trees  for  lumber.  In 
America  there  has  been  such  an  abundance  of  trees  good  enough  for 
our  purposes  that  we  have  simply  gone  out  and  gathered  them,  just 
as  a  savage  goes  out  to  gather  berries  and  nuts.  Some  day  our  de- 
scendants will  smile  at  our  treatment  of  forests  much  as  we  smile  at 
root-digging  savages,  unless,  indeed,  we  so  far  destroy  the  forests  that 
they  will  be  more  angered  than  amused.  In  Europe  and  Japan,  the 
original  supply  of  trees  having  been  exhausted,  forests  have  been  cul- 
tivated for  centuries  with  the  purpose  of  raising  crops  larger  in 
quantity  and  better  in  quality. 

There  are  various  methods  used  in  forest  improvement.  Improve- 
ment cuttings,  as  the  name  implies,  are  cuttings  made  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  forest,  whether  by  thinning  out  poor  species  of  trees, 
unsound  trees,  trees  crowding  more  valuable  ones,  or  trees  called 
"wolves";  that  is,  trees  unduly  overshadowing  others.  Improvement 
cuttings  are  often  necessary  as  a  preliminary  step  before  any  silvi- 


286  WOOD  AND  FOREST. 

cultural  system  can  be  applied.  Indeed,  many  of  the  silvicultural 
systems  involve  steady  improvement  of  the  forest. 

The  pruning  of  branches  is  a  method  of  improvement,  carrying 
on  the  natural  method  by  which  trees  in  a  forest  clean  themselves  of 
their  branches. 

Seeds  of  valuable  species  are  often  sowed,  when  the  conditions  are 
proper,  in  order  to  introduce  a  valuable  species,  just  as. brooks  and 
ponds  are  stocked  with  fine  fish.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  im- 
provement methods  are  only  in  their  infancy,  especially  in  America. 


THE   USE   OF   THE   FOREST.  287 


THE   USE   OF   THE   FOREST. 
REFERENCES : * 

I  Utilization. 

Pinchot,  Primer,  II,  pp.  14-18,     Bruncken,  pp.  121-131,  For.  Bull.  No. 
38-48.  61. 

(1)  Protective. 

Pinchot,     Primer,     II,     pp.  Tourney,    Agric.    Yr.    Bk.,     1903,    p. 

66-73.  279. 

Craft,  Agric.  Yr.  Bk.,  1905,  Bruncken,    pp.    166-173. 

pp.      636-641,      (Map.     p.  For.   and  Irrig.,  passim. 

639.)  Shaler,    I,    pp.    485-489. 

(2)  Productive. 

Kellogg,  For.  Bull.,  No.  74,     Boulger,   pp.    60-76. 
Fernow,   For.   Invest.,   p.   9.     Roth,   Agric.   Yr.   Bk.,   1896,   p.    391. 
Roth,   First   Book,   p.    133.       Fernow,   Economics,   pp.   23-33. 
Zon    &    Clark,    Agric.     Yr. 
Bk.,    1907,   p.   277. 

(3)  Esthetic. 

Roth,  First  Book,  p.  180. 

II  Preservation. 

Pinchot,    Primer,    II,    pp.    18-36.  Roth,  First  Book,  pp.  41-76,  193-194. 

Bruncken,   pp.   95,   190.  Roth,  For.  Bull.,  No  16,  pp.  8,  9. 

Graves,   For.   Bull.,  No.   26,  Fernow,   Economics,   165-196. 
pp.    67-70. 

Planting. 

Roth,     First     Book,     pp.     76-94,     Bruncken,  pp.    92,    133. 
195-198. 

Hall,   Agric.   Yr.   Bk.,    1902,     Forestry   Bulletins   Nos.    18,   45,    52, 

pp.    145-156.  65. 

For.  Circs.,  Nos.  37,  41,  45,  81. 

Ill  Improvement. 

Bruncken,      pp.      134-135,      152-     Pinchot,  Adirondack  Spruce,  p.  4. 
160. 

Graves,   For.   Bull.,   No.   26,     Harwood,  pp.  143-181. 
p.    39. 


Tor  general  bibliography,  see  p.  4. 


APPENDIX. 

HOW  TO  DISTINGUISH  THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  WOOD.* 
BY  B.  E.  FBRNOW  AND  FILIBEKT  ROTH. 

The  carpenter  or  other  artisan  who  handles  different  woods,  becomes 
familiar  with  those  he  employs  frequently,  and  learns  to  distinguish  them 
thru  this  familiarity,  without  usually  being  able  to  state  the  points  of  dis- 
tinction. If  a  wood  comes  before  him  with  which  he  is  not  familiar,  he 
has,  of  course,  no  means  of  determining  what  it  is,  and  it  is  possible  to 
select  pieces  even  of  those  with  which  he  is  well  acquainted,  different  in 
appearance  from  the  general  run,  that  will  make  him  doubtful  as  to  their 
identification.  Furthermore,  he  may  distinguish  between  hard  and  soft 
pines,  between  oak  and  ash,  or  between  maple  and  birch,  which  are  charac- 
teristically different ;  but  when  it  comes  to  distinguishing  between  the  several 
species  of  pine  or  oak  or  ash  or  birch,  the  absence  of  readily  recognizable 
characters  is  such  that  but  few  practitioners  can  be  relied  upon  to  do  it. 
Hence,  in  the  market  we  find  many  species  mixed  and  sold  indiscriminately. 

To  identify  the  different  woods  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  knowledge  of 
the  definite,  invariable  differences  in  their  structure,  besides  that  of  the 
often  variable  differences  in  their  appearance.  These  structural  differences 
may  either  be  readily  visible  to  the  naked  eye  or  with  a  magnifier,  or. 
they  may  require  a  microscopical  examination.  In  some  cases  such  an  ex- 
amination can  not  be  dispensed  with,  if  we  would  make  absolutely  sure. 
There  are  instances,  as  in  the  pines,  where  even  our  knowledge  of  the  minute 
anatomical  structure  is  not  yet  sufficient  to  make  a  sure  identification. 

In  the  following  key  an  attempt  has  been  made — the  first,  so  far  as  we 
know,  in  English  literature — to  give  a  synoptical  view  of  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  commoner  woods  of  the  United  States,  which  are  found  in 
the  markets  or  are  used  in  the  arts.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  distinction 
has  been  carried  in  most  instances  no  further  than  to  genera  or  classes  of 
woods,  since  the  distinction  of  species  can  hardly  be  accomplished  without 
elaborate  microscopic  study,  and  also  that,  as  far  as  possible,  reliance  has 
been  placed  only  on  such  characteristics  as  can  be  distinguished  with  the 
naked  eye  or  a  simple  magnifying  glass,  in  order  to  make  the  key  useful 
to  the  largest  number.  Recourse  has  also  been  taken  for  the  same  reason 
to  the  less  reliable  and  more  variable  general  external  appearance,  color, 
taste,  smell,  weight,  etc. 

The  user  of  the  key  must,  however,  realize  that  external  appearance, 
such,  for  example,  as  color,  is  not  only  very  variable  but  also  very  difficult 

*From  Forestry  Bulletin  No.  10,  U.  S  Department  of  Agriculture. 

289 


290  WOOD  AND   FOREST. 

to  describe,  individual  observers  differing  especially  in  seeing  and  describing 
shades  of  color.  The  same  is  true  of  statements  of  size,  when  relative,  and 
not  accurately  measured,  while  weight  and  hardness  can  perhaps  be  more 
readily  approximated.  Whether  any  feature  is  distinctly  or  only  indistinctly 
seen  will  also  depend  somewhat  on  individual  eyesight,  opinion,  or  practice. 
In  some  cases  the  resemblance  .of  different  species  is  so  close  that  only  one 
other  expedient  will  make  distinction  possible,  namely,  a  knowledge  of  the 
region  from  which  the  wood  has  come.  We  know,  for  instance,  that  no 
longleaf  pine  grows  in  Arkansas  and  that  no  white  pine  can  come  from  Ala- 
bama, and  we  can  separate  the  white  cedar,  giant  arbor  vitae  of  the  West 
and  the  arbor  vitse  of  the  Northeast,  only  by  the  difference  of  the  locality 
from  which  the  specimen  comes.  With  all  these  limitations  properly  ap- 
preciated, the  key  will  be  found  helpful  toward  greater  familiarity  with  the 
woods  which  are  more  commonly  met  with. 

The  features  which  have  been  utilized  in  the  key  and  with  which — their 
names  as  well  as  their  appearance — therefore,  the  reader  must  familiarize 
himself  before  attempting  to  use  the  key,  are  mostly  described  as  they  ap- 
pear in  cross-section.  They  are: 

(1)    Sap-wood  and  heart-wood    (see  p.   17),  the  former  being  the  wood 
from  the   outer   and   the  latter   from  the  inner   part   of   the  tree.      In    some 


r 


ar-i 

.Sp.UV    I  r~SD\V. 


Fig".  128.  "Non-porous"  Woods.  A,  fir;  B,  "hard"  pine;  C, soft 

pine;  ar,  annual  ring-;  <?.<?.,  outer  edge  of  ring-;  i.e.,  inneredg-e 

of  ring;  s.  zv.,  summer  wood;  sp.  TV.,  spring-  wood;  rd.,  resin 

ducts. 

cases  they  differ  only  in  shade,  and  in  others  in  kind  of  color,  the  heart- 
wood  exhibiting  either  a  darker  shade  or  a  pronounced  color.  Since  one 
can  not  always  have  the  two  together,  or  be  certain  whether  he  has  sap- 
wood  or  heart- wood,  reliance  upon  this  feature  is,  to  be  sure,  unsatisfactory, 
yet  sometimes  it  is  the  only  general  characteristic  that  can  be  relied  upon. 
If  further  assurance  is  desired,  microscopic  structure  must  be  examined; 
in  such  cases  reference  has  been  made  to  the  presence  or  absence  of  tracheids 
in  pith  rays  and  the  structure  of  their  walls,  especially  projections  and 
spirals. 

(2)  Annual  rings,  their  formation  having  been  described  on  page  19. 
(See  also  Figs.  128-130.)  They  are  more  or  less  distinctly  marked,  and  by 
such  marking  a  classification  of  three  great  groups  of  wood  is  possible. 


APPENDIX. 


291 


(3)  Spring  wood  and  summer  wood,  the  former  being  the  interior    (first 
formed   wood   of   the   year),   the   latter   the   exterior    (last   formed)    part   of 
the  ring.     The  proportion  of  each  and  the  manner  in  which  the  one  merges 
into  the  other  are  sometimes  used,  but  more  frequently  the  manner  in  which 
the  pores  appear  distributed  in  either. 

(4)  Pores,   which   are  vessels   cut  thru,   appearing   as   holes  in   cross-sec- 
tion, in  longitudinal   section  as  channels,  scratches,   or  identifications.      (See 
p.  23  and  Figs.  129  and  130.)    They  appear  only  in  the  broad-leaved,  so  called, 
hard  woods;    their  relative    size    (large,   medium,    small,    minute,   and   indis- 
tinct when  they  cease  to  be  visible  individually  by  the  naked  eye)    and  man- 
ner of  distribution  in  the  ring  being  of  much  importance,  and  especially  in 
the  summer  wood,  where  they  appear  singly,  in  groups,  or  short  broken  lines, 
in  continuous  concentric,  often  wavy  lines,  or  in  radial  branching  lines. 

(5)   Resin  ducts    (see  p.  26  and  Fig.  128)    which  appear  very  much  like 
pores  in  cross-section,  namely,  as  holes  or  lighter  or  darker  colored  dots,  but 


su.w.<  ::  4  af::»4. 


sp.w.\ 


11° 


Fig-.  129.  "King-porous"  Woods  White  Oak  and  Hickory-. 
a.  r.,  annual  ring-;  su.~v.,  summer  wood;  sp.w.,  spring 
wood;  r,  vessels  or  pores;  c.  /.,  "concentric"  lines;  rt, 
darker  tracts  of  hard  fibers  f  rming  the  firm  part  of 
oak  wood;/r,  pith  rays. 


much  more  scattered.  They  occur  only  in  coniferous  woods,  and  their  pres- 
ence or  absence,  size,  number,  and  distribution  are  an  important  distinction 
in  these  woods. 

(6)  Pith  rays  (see  p.  21  and  Figs.  129  and  130),  which  in  cross-section 
appear  as  radial  lines,  and  in  radial  section  as  interrupted  bands  of  varying 
breadth,  impart  a  peculiar  luster  to  that  section  in  some  woods.  They  are 
most  readily  visible  with  the  naked  eye  or  with  a  magnifier  in  the  broad- 
leaved  woods.  In  coniferous  woods  they  are  usually  so  fine  and  closely 
packed  that  to  the  casual  observer  they  do  not  appear.  Their  breadth  and 
their  greater  or  less  distinctness  are  used  as  distinguishing  marks,  being 
styled  fine,  broad,  distinct,  very  distinct,  conspicuous,  and  indistinct  when 
no  longer  visible  by  the  naked  (strong)  eye. 

(7)  Concentric  lines,  appearing  in  the  summer  wood  of  certain  species 
more  or  less  distinct,  resembling  distantly  the  lines  of  pores  but  much 
finer  and  not  consisting  of  pores.  (See  Fig.  129.) 


292 


WOOD   AND    FOREST, 


Of  miscroscopic  features,  the  following  only  have  been  referred  to: 

(8)  Tracheids,  a  description  of  which  is  to  be  found  on  page  28. 

(9)  Pits,  simple  and  bordered,   especially  the  number  of  simple  pits   in 
the  cells  of  the  pith  rays,  which  lead  into  each  of  the  adjoining  tracheids. 

For  standards  of  weight,  consult  table  on  pages  50  and  192;  for  stand- 
ards of  hardness,  table  on  page  195. 

Unless  otherwise  stated  the  color  refers  always  to  the  fresh  cross-section 
of  a  piece  of  dry  wood;  sometimes  distinct  kinds  of  color,  sometimes  only 
shades,  and  often  only  general  color  effects  appear. 

HOW     TO    USE    THE    KEY. 

Nobody  need  expect  to  be  able  to  use  successfully  any  key  for  the  dis- 
tinction of  woods  or  of  any  other  class  of  natural  objects  without  some 
practice.  This  is  especially  true  with  regard  to  woods,  which  are  apt  to 


^  ^    .          q 
"flBfflBI 


far 


Beech 


.Sycamore I .Birch I 


Fig.  130.    "Diffuse-porous"  Woods,     ar,  annual  ring-; pr,  pith  raj rs 
which  are  "broad"  at  «,  "fine"  at  b,  "indistinct"  at  d. 


vary  much,  and  when  the  key  is  based  on  such  meager  general  data  as  the 
present.  The  best  course  to  adopt  is  to  supply  one's  self .  with  a  small 
sample  collection  of  woods,  accurately  named.  Small,  polished  tablets  are 
of  little  use  for  this  purpose.  The  pieces  should  be  large  enough,  if  possible. 
to  include  pith  and  bark,  and  of  sufficient  width  to  permit  ready  inspection 
of  the  cross-section.  By  examining  these  with  the  aid  of  the  key,  begin- 
ning with  the  better-known  woods,  one  will  soon  learn  to  see  the  features 
described  and  to  form  an  idea  of  the  relative  standards  which  the  maker 
of  the  key  had  in  mind.  To  aid  in  this,  the  accompanying  illustrations  will 
be  of  advantage.  When  the  reader  becomes  familiar  with  the  key,  the  work 
of  identifying  any  given  piece  will  be  comparatively  easy.  The  material  to 
be  examined  must,  of  course,  be  suitably  prepared.  It  should  be  moistened: 
all  cuts  should  be  made  with  a  very  sharp  knife  or  razor  and  be  clean  and 
smooth,  for  a  bruised  surface  reveals  but  little  structure.  The  most  useful 
cut  may  be  made  along  one  of  the  edges.  Instructive,  thin,  small  sections 
may  be  made  with  a  sharp  penknife  or  razor,  and  when  placed  on  a  piece  of 


APPENDIX.  293 

thin  glass,  moistened  and  covered  with  another  piece  of  glass,  they  may  be 
examined  by  holding  them  toward  the  light. 

Finding,  on  examination  with  the  magnifier,  that  it  contains  pores,  we 
know  it  is  not  coniferous  or  non-porous.  Finding  no  pores  collected  in  the 
spring-wood  portion  of  the  annual  ring,  but  all  scattered  (diffused)  thru 
the  ring,  we  turn  at  once  to  the  class  of  "Diffuse-porous  woods."  We  now 
note  the  size  and  manner  in  which  the  pores  are  distributed  thru  the  ring. 
Finding  them  very  small  and  neither  conspicuously  grouped,  nor  larger 
nor  more  abundant  in  the  spring-wood,  we  turn  to  the  third  group  of  this 
class.  We  now  note  the  pith  rays,  and  finding  them  neither  broad  nor  con- 
spicuous, but  difficult  to  distinguish,  even  with  the  magnifier,  we  at  once 
exclude  the  wood  from  the  first  two  sections  of  this  group  and  place  it  in 
the  third,  which  is  represented  by  only  one  kind,  cottonwood.  Finding  the 
wood  very  soft,  white,  and  on  the  longitudinal  section  with  a  silky  luster, 
we  are  further  assured  that  our  determination  is  correct.  We  may  now 
turn  to  the  list  of  woods  and  obtain  further  information  regarding  the  oc- 
currence, qualities,  and  uses  of  the  wood. 

Sometimes  our  progress  is  not  so  easy;  we  may  waver  in  what  group 
or  section  to  place  the  wood  before  us.  In  such  cases  we  may  try  each  of 
the  doubtful  roads  until  we  reach  a  point  where  we  find  ourselves  entirely 
wrong  and  then  return  and  take  up  another  line ;  or  we  may  anticipate 
some  of  the  later  mentioned  features  and  finding  them  apply  to  our  specimen, 
gain  additional  assurance  of  the  direction  we  ought  to  travel.  Color  will 
often  help  us  to  arrive  at  a  speedy  decision.  In  many  cases,  especially  with 
conifers,  which  are  rather  difficult  to  distinguish,  a  knowledge  of  the  locality 
from  which  the  specimen  comes  is  at  once  decisive.  Thus,  northern  white 
cedar,  and  bald  cypress,  and  the  cedar  of  the  Pacific  will  be  identified,  even 
without  the  somewhat  indefinite  criteria  given  in  the  key. 


KEY  TO  THE  MORE  IMPORTANT  WOODS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

I.  NON-POROUS  WOODS — Pores  not  visible  or  conspicuous  on  cross-section, 
even  with  magnifier.     Annual  rings  distinct  by  denser    (dark  colored)   bands 
of  summer  wood   (Fig.  128). 

II.  RING-POROUS  WOODS — Pores  numerous,  usually  visible  on  cross-section 
without  magnifier.     Annual  rings  distinct  by  a  zone  of  large  pores  collected 
in  the  spring  wood,  alternating  with  the  denser  summer  wood  (Fig.  129). 

III.  DIFFUSE-POROUS  WOODS — Pores  numerous,  usually  not  plainly  visible 
on  cross-section  without  magnifier.     Annual  rings  distinct  by  a  fine  line  of 
denser  summer  wood  cells,  often  quite   indistinct;   pores  scattered  thru   an- 
nual ring,  no  zone  of  collected  pores  in  spring  wood   (Fig.  130). 

NOTE. — The  above  described  three  groups  are  exogenous,  i.  e.,  they  grow  by 
adding  annually  wood  on  their  circumference.  A  fourth  group  is  formed  by  the 
endogenous  woods,  like  yuccas  and  palms,  which  do  not  grow  by  such  additions. 

I. — NON-POROUS  WOODS. 

(Includes  all  coniferous  woods.) 
A.  Resin  ducts  wanting.1 

1.  No  distinct  heart-wood. 

a.  Color  effect  yellowish  white;  summer  wood  darker  yellowish   (under 
microscope  pith  ray  without  tracheids)     FIRS. 

ADDITIONAL  NOTES  FOR  DISTINCTIONS  IN  THE  GROUP. 

Spruce  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  fir,  except  by  the  existence  of  the 
resin  ducts,  and  microscopically  by  the  presence  of  tracheids  in  the  medullary 
rays.  Spruce  may  also  be  confounded  with  soft  pine,  except  for  the  heart- 
wood  color  of  the  latter  and  the  larger,  more  frequent,  and  more  readily  visi- 
ble resin  ducts. 

In  the  lumber  yard,  hemlock  is  usually  recognized  by  color  and  the  silvery 
character  of  its  surface.  Western  hemlocks  partake  of  this  last  character  to 
a  less  degree. 

Microscopically  the  white  pine  can  be  distinguished  by  having  usually 
only  one  large  pit,  while  spruce  shows  three  to  five  very  small  pits  in  the 
parenchyma  cells  of  the  pith  ray  communicating  with  the  tracheid. 

The  distinction  of  the  pines  is  possible  only  by  microscopic  examination. 
The  following  distinctive  features  may  assist  in  recognizing,  when  in  the 
log  or  lumber  pile,  those  usually  found  in  the  market: 

aTo  discover  the  resin  ducts  a  very  smooth  surface  is  necessary,  since  resin  ducts  are 
frequently  seen  only  with  difficulty,  appearing-  on  the  cross-section  as  fine  whiter  or  darker 
spots  normally  scattered  singly,  rarely  in  groups,  usually  in  the  summer  wood  of  the  an- 
nual ring-.  They  are  often  much  more  easily  seen  on  radial,  and  still  more  so  on  tang-ential 
sections,  appearing-  there  as  fine  lines  or  dots  of  open  structure  of  different  color  or  as  in- 
dentations or  pin  scratches  in  a  longitudinal  direction. 

294 


APPENDIX.  295 

6.  Color    effect    reddish     (roseate)     (under    microscope    pith    ray    with 
tracheids )    HEMLOCK. 

2.  Heart-wood  present,  color  decidedly  different  in  kind  from  sap-wood. 
a.  Heart-wood   light   orange   red;    sap-wood,   pale   lemon;    wood,   heavy 

and  hard  YEW. 

&.  Heartwood  purplish  to  brownish  red;  sap-wood  yellowish  white; 

wood  soft  to  medium  hard,  light,  usually  with  aromatic  odor, 

RED  CEDAR. 
G.  Heart-wood  maroon  to  terra  cotta  or  deep  brownish  red ;  sap-wood 

light  orange  to  dark  amber,  very  soft  and  light,  no  odor ;  pith  rays 

very  distinct,   specially  pronounced  on  radial  section REDWOOD. 

3.  Heart-wood  present,  color  only  different  in  shade  from  sap-wood,  dingy- 
yellowish   brown. 

a.  Odorless  and  tasteless    BALD  CYPRESS 

6.  Wood  with   mild  resinous  odor,  but  tasteless    WHITE  CEDAR. 

c.  Wood  with  strong  resinous  odor  and  peppery  taste  when  freshly  cut, 

INCENSE   CEDAR. 
JB.  Resin  ducts  present. 

1.  No  distinct   heartwood;    color   white,   resin   ducts   very   small,   not  nu- 
merous  SPRUCE 

2.  Distinct  heart-wood  present. 

a.  Resin   ducts    numerous,    evenly    scattered   thru   the   ring. 

a'.  Transition  from  spring  wood  to  summer  wood  gradual ;  annual 
ring  distinguished  by  a  fine  line  of  dense  summer-wood  cells ; 
color,  white  to  yellowish  red;  wood  soft  and  light.  .SOFT  PINES.J 
6'.  Transition  from  spring  wood  to  summer  wood  more  or  less 
abrupt;  broad  bands  of  dark-colored  summer  wood;  color  from 
light  to  deep  orange;  wood  medium  hard  and  heavy. HARD  PINES. * 

The  light,  straw  color,  combined  with  great  lightness  and  softness,  dis- 
tinguishes the  white  pines  (white  pine  and  sugar  pine)  from  the  hard  pines 
(all  others  in  the  market),  which  may  also  be  recognized  by  the  gradual 
change  of  spring  wood  into  summer  wood.  This  change  in  hard  pines  is 
abrupt,  making  the  summer  wood  appear  as  a  sharply  defined  and  more  or 
less  broad  band. 

The  Norway  pine,  which  may  be  confounded  with  the  shortleaf  pine,  can 
be  distinguished  by  being  much  lighter  and  softer.  It  may  also,  but  more 
rarely,  be  confounded  with  heavier  white  pine,  but  for  the  sharper  definition 
of  the  annual  ring,  weight,  and  hardness. 

The  longleaf  pine  is  strikingly  heavy,  hard,  and  resinous,  and  usually 
very  regular  and  narrow  ringed,  showing  little  sap-wood,  and  differing  in 
this  respect  from  the  shortleaf  pine  and  loblolly  pine,  which  usually  have 
wider  rings  and  more  sap-wood,  the  latter  excelling  in  that  respect. 


limit. 


rSoft  and  hard  pines  are  arbitrary  distinctions  and  the  two  not  distinguishable  at  the 
u 


296  WOOD  AND   FOREST. 

6.  Resin   ducts   not   numerous  nor   evenly  distributed. 

a'.  Color  of  heart-wood  orange-reddish,  sap-wood  yellowish  (same  as 
hard  pine)  ;  resin  ducts  frequently  combined  in  groups  of  8  to 
30,  forming  lines  on  the  cross-section  (tracheids  with  spirals), 

DOUGLAS  SPRUCE. 

&'.  Color  of  heart-wood  light  russet  brown;  of  sap-wood  yellowish 
brown;  resin  ducts  very  few,  irregularly  scattered  (tracheids 
without  spirals)  TAMARACK. 

II. — RING-POROUS  WOODS. 

(Some  of  Group  D  and  cedar  elm  Imperfectly  ring-porous.) 

A.  Pores  in  the  summer  wood  minute,   scattered  singly  or  in  groups,  or  in 
short  broken  lines,  the  course  of  which  is  never  radial. 

1.  Pith  rays  minute,  scarcely  distinct. 

a.  Wood  heavy  and  hard;  pores  in  the  summer  wood  not  in  clusters. 

a.'  Color  of  radial  section  not  yellow    ASH. 

&.'  Color  of  radial  section  light  yellow;  by  which,  together  with  its 
hardness  and  weight,  this  species  is  easily  recognized, 

OSAGE  ORANGE. 

6.  Wood  light  and  soft;   pores  in  the  summer  wood   in  clusters  of  10 
to   30    CATALPA. 

2.  Pith  rays  very  fine,  yet  distinct;  pores  in  summer  wood  usually  single 

or  in  short  lines;   color  of  heart- wood  reddish  brown;   of  sap-wood 
yellowish  white ;    peculiar  odor  on  fresh   section    SASSAFRAS. 

3.  Pith  rays  fine,  but  distinct. 

a.  Very  heavy  and  hard;   heart-wood  yellowish  brown.  .BLACK  LOCUST. 
&.  Heavy;    medium  hard  to  hard. 

The  following  convenient  and  useful  classification  of  pines  into  four  groups, 
proposed  by  Dr.  H.  Mayr,  is  based  on  the  appearance  of  the  pith  ray  as  seen 
in  a  radial  section  of  the  spring  wood  of  any  ring: 
Section  I.  Walls  of  the  tracheids  of  the  pith  ray  with  dentate  projections. 

a.  One  to  two  large,  simple  pits  to  each  tracheid  on  the  radial  walls  of 
the  cells  of  the  pith  ray. — Group  1.  Represented  in  this  country  only 
by  P.  resinosa. 

b.  Three  to  six  simple  pits  to  each  tracheid,  on  the  walls  of  the  cells  of 

the  pith  ray. — Group  2.  P.  taeda,  palustris,  etc.,  including  most  of  our 

"hard"  and  "yellow"  pines. 

Section  II.   Walls  of  tracheids  of  pith  ray  smooth,   without  dentate  projec- 
tions. 
a.  One  or  two  large  pits  to  each  tracheid  on  the  radial  walls  of  each  cell 

of  the   pith    ray. — Group    3.   P.   strolus,    lambertiana,    and   other    true 

white  pines. 
6.  Three  to  six  small  pits  on  the  radial  walls  of  each  cell  of  the  pith  ray. 

Group  4.  P.  parryana,  and  other  nut  pines,  including  also  P.  balfouriana . 


APPENDIX.  297 

a/  Pores  in  summer  wood  very  minute,  usually  in  small  clusters  of 

3  to  8 ;   heart-wood  light  orange  brown    RED  MULBERRY. 

&.'  Pores  in  summer  wood  small  to  minute,  usually  isolated;  heart- 
wood  cherry  red   COFFEE  TREE, 

4.  Pith  rays  fine  but  very  conspicuous,  even  without  magnifier.     Color  of 

heart- wood  red ;  of  sap-wood  pale  lemon HONEY  LOCUST. 

B.  Pores  of  summer  wood  minute  or  small,  in  concentric  wavy  and  sometimes 
branching  lines,  appearing  as  finely-feathered  hatchings  on  tangential 
section. 

1.  Pith   rays   fine,    but   very  distinct;    color   greenish   white.      Heart-wood 
absent    or    imperfectly    developed    HACKBERRY. 

ADDITIONAL   NOTES  FOR  DISTINCTIONS   IN   THE   GROUP. 

Sassafras  and  mulberry  may  be  confounded  but  for  the  greater  weight 
and  hardness  and  the  absence  of  odor  in  the  mulberry;  the  radial  section  of 
mulberry  also  shows  the  pith  rays  conspicuously. 

Honey  locust,  coffee  tree,  and  black  locust  are  also  very  similar  in  appear- 
ance. The  honey  locust  stands  out  by  the  conspicuousness  of  the  pith  rays, 
especially  on  radial  sections,  on  account  of  their  height,  while  the  black 
locust  is  distinguished  by  the  extremely  great  weight  and  hardness,  together 
with  its  darker  brown  color. 


Fig-.  131.     Wood  of  Coffee  Tree. 

The  ashes,  elms,  hickories,  and  oaks  may,  on  casual  observation,  appear 
to  resemble  one  another  on  account  of  the  pronounced  zone  of  porous  spring 
wood.  (Figs.  129,  132,  135.)  The  sharply  defined  large  pith  rays  of  the  oak 
exclude  these  at  once;  the  wavy  lines  of  pores  in  the  summer  wood,  appear- 
ing as  conspicuous  finely-feathered  hatchings  on  tangential  section,  distin- 
guish the  elms ;  while  the  ashes  differ  from  the  hickory  by  the  very  con- 
spicuously defined  zone  of  spring  wood  pores,  which  in  hickory  appear  more 
or  less  interrupted.  The  reddish  hue  of  the  hickory  and  the  more  or  less 
brown  hue  of  the  ash  may  also  aid  in  ready  recognition.  The  smooth,  radial 
surface  of  split  hickory  will  readily  separate  it  from  the  rest. 


298 


WOOD  AND   FOREST. 


2.  Pith    rays    indistinct;    color    of    heart-wood    reddish    brown;    sap-wood 
grayish  to  reddish  white   ELMS. 

C.  Pores   of  summer  wood   arranged   in   radial   branching   lines    (when  very 
crowded   radial    arrangement   somewhat  obscured ) . 

1.  Pith  rays  very  minute,  hardly  visible CHESTNUT. 

2.  Pith  rays  very  broad  and  conspicuous    OAK. 

D.  Pores  of  summer  wood  mostly  but  little  smaller  than  those  of  the  spring 
wood,  isolated  and  scattered;  very  heavy  and  hard  woods.     The  pores  of 
the  spring  wood  sometimes  form  but  an  imperfect  zone.      (Some  diffuse- 
porous  woods  of  groups  A  and  B  may  seem  to  belong  here.) 

1.  Fine  concentric  lines    (not  of  pores)    as  distinct,  or  nearly  so,  as  the 
very  fine  pith  rays;    outer   summer  wood  with   a  tinge  of  red;   heart- 
wood  light   reddish   brown    HICKORY. 

2.  Fine  concentric  lines,  much  finer  than  the  pith  rays ;  no  reddish  tinge 
in  summer  wood ;    sap-wood  white ;    heart-wood  blackish PERSIMMON. 

ADDITIONAL  NOTES  FOR  DISTINCTIONS   IN  THE  GROUP. 


Fig.  132.    A,  black  ash;  B,  white  ash;  C,  green  ash. 

The  different  species  of  ash  may  be  identified  as  follows    (Fig.  132)  : 

1.  Pores  in  the  summer  wood  more  or  less   united  into  lines. 

a.  The  lines  short  and  broken,  occurring  mostly  near  the  limit  of  the 
ring  WHITE  ASH. 

&.  The  lines  quite  long  and  conspicuous  in  most  parts  of  the  summer 
wood  GREEN  .  ASH. 

2.  Pores  in  the  summer  wood  not  united  into  lines,  or  rarely  so. 

a.  Heart-wood  reddish  brown  and  very  firm    RED  ASH. 

6.  Heart-wood  grayish  brown,  and  much  more  porous BLACK  ASH. 


APPENDIX. 


299 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES — continued. 

In  the  oaks,  two  groups  can  be  readily  distinguished  by  the  manner  in 
which  the  pores  are  distributed  in  the  summer  wood.  (Fig.  133.)  In  the 
white  oaks  the  pores  are  very  fine  and  numerous  and  crowded  in  the  outer 
part  of  the  summer  wood,  while  in  the  black  or  red  oaks  the  pores  are 
larger,  few  in  number,  and  mostly  isolated.  The  live  oaks,  as  far  as  struc- 
ture is  concerned,  belong  to  the  black  oaks,  but  are  much  less  porous,  and 
are  exceedingly  heavy  and  hard. 


Fig-.  133.  Wood  of  Red  Oak.  (For  white  oak 
see  fig".  129,  p.  291.) 


100   H)OO  c 

"•i  n  (  i 


Fig-.  134.    Wood  of  Chestnut. 


300  WOOD  AND    FOREST. 

III. — DIFFUSE-POROUS  WOODS. 

(A  few  indistinctly  ring-porous  woods  of  Group  II,  D,  and  cedar  elm  may 
seem  to  belong  here.) 

A.  Pores    varying   in    size    from    large    to   minute;    largest    in    spring   wood, 
thereby  giving  sometimes  the  appearance   of   a  ring-porous   arrangement. 

1.  Heavy  and  hard;   color  of  heart-wood    (especially  on  longitudinal   sec- 
tion)   chocolate  brown    BLACK  WALNUT. 

2.  Light  and  soft;   color  of  heart-wood  light  reddish  brown.  .BUTTERNUT/ 

B.  Pores  all  minute  and   indistinct;    most  numerous  in  spring  wood,   giving 
rise  to  a  lighter  colored  zone  or  line   (especially  on  longitudinal  section), 
thereby  appearing  sometimes   ring-porous ;    wood  hard,  heart-wood  vinous 
reddish;  pith  rays  very  fine,  but  very  distinct.      (See  also  the  sometimes 
indistinct  ring-porous  cedar  elm,  and  occasionally  winged  elm,  which  are 
readily  distinguished  by  the  concentric  wavy  lines  of  pores  in  the  sum- 
mer  wood )     CHERRY. 

C.  Pores  minute  or  indistinct,  neither  conspicuously  larger  nor  more  numer- 
ous in  the  spring  wood  and  evenly  distributed. 

1.  Broad  pith  rays  present. 

a.  All  or  most  pith  rays  broad,  numerous,  and  crowded,  especially  on 
tangential  sections,  medium  heavy  and  hard,  difficult  to  split. 

SYCAMORE. 
6.  Only  part  of  the  pith  rays  broad. 

a/  Broad    pith    rays   well    defined,    quite    numerous;    wood    reddish 

white    to    reddish    BEECH. 

&.'  Broad  pith  rays  not  sharply  defined,  made  up  of  many  small 
rays,  not  numerous.  Stem  furrowed,  and  therefore  the  periphery 
of  section,  and  with  it  the  annual  rings  sinuous,  bending  in  and 
out,  and  the  large  pith  rays  generally  limited  to  the  furrows 
or  concave  portions.  Wood  white,  not  reddish  .  . .  BLUE  BEECH. 

2.  No   broad   pith   rays   present. 


IH 

?«=fl 


m;  a  m  fjjwffjS 


Fig.  135.     Wood  of  Hickory. 


APPENDIX.  301 

a.  Pith  rays  small  to  very  small,  but  quite  distinct, 
a/  Wood  hard. 

a."  Color  reddish  white,  with  dark  reddish  tinge  in  outer  sum- 
mer wood    MAPLE. 

6."  Color  white,  without  reddish  tinge HOLLY. 

6.'  Wood  soft  to  very  soft. 

a."  Pores  crowded,  occupying  nearly  all  the  space  between  pith 
rays, 
a.'"  Color   yellowish   white,    often    with    a   greenish   tinge    in 

heart-wood    TULIP   POPLAR. 

CUCUMBER  TREE. 
&."'  Color   of  sap-wood  grayish,  of  heart-wood   light  to  dark 

reddish    brown    SWEET    GUM. 

&."  Pores  not   crowded,   occupying  not  over  one-third   the   space 
between  pith  rays;    heart-wood  brownish  white  to  very  light 

brown    BASSWOOD. 

6.  Pith   rays  scarcely  distinct,  yet  if  viewed  with  ordinary  magnifier, 
plainly  visible. 
a/  Pores    indistinct   to    the    naked   eye. 

a."  Color  uniform  pale  yellow;    pith   rays  not  conspicuous   even 

on   the   radial    section    BUCKEYE. 

&."  Sap-wood   yellowish    gray,   heart-wood   grayish   brown ;    pith 

rays    conspicuous   on   the    radial    section    SOUR    GUM. 

&/  Pores  scarcely  distinct,  but  mostly  visible  as  grayish  specks  on 

the  cross-section;    sap-wood  whitish,  heart- wood  reddish.  . BIRCH. 

D.  Pith  rays  not  visible  or  else  indistinct,  even  if  viewed  with  magnifier. 

1.  Wood   very  soft,   white,    or   in   shades  of  brown,   usually  with   a   silky 

luster    COTTONWOOD    (POPLAR)  . 

ADDITIONAL   NOTES   FOR  DISTINCTIONS   IN   THE   GROUP. 

Cherry  and  birch  are  sometimes  confounded,  the  high  pith  rays  on  the 
cherry  on  radial  sections  readily  distinguishes  it;  distinct  pores  on  birch  and 
spring  wood  zone  in  cherry  as  well  as  the  darker  vinous-brown  color  of  the 
latter  will  prove  helpful. 

Two  groups  of  birches  can  be  readily  distinguished,  tho  specific  distinc- 
tion is  not  always  possible. 

1.  Pith  rays  fairly  distinct,  the  pores  rather  few  and  not  more  abundant 

in  the  spring  wood :  wood  heavy,  usually  darker, 

CHERRY  BIRCH   and  YELLOW   BIRCH. 

2.  Pith  rays  barely  distinct,  pores  more  numerous  and  commonly  forming 
a  more  porous  spring  wood  zone;  wood  of  medium  weight, 

CANOE  OR  PAPER  BIRCH. 
The  species  of  maple  may  be  distinguished  as  follows: 

1.  Most  of  the  pith  rays  broader  than  the  pores  and  very  conspicuous. 

SUGAR  MAPLE. 


302 


WOOD  AND    FOREST. 
ADDITIONAL  NOTES— continued. 


H 


Beech J^__  .Sycamore 1 .Birch 


Fig-.  136.     Wood  of  Beech,  Sycamore  and  Birch. 


2.  Pith  rays  not  or  rarely  broader  than  the  pores,  fine  but  conspicuous. 
a.  Wood   heavy   and   hard,   usually   of   darker   reddish    color   and   com- 
monly spotted  on  cross-section    RED  MAPLE. 

6.  Wood  of  medium  weight  and  hardness,  usually  light  colored. 

SILVER  MAPLE. 


Fijr.  137.     Wood  of  Maple. 


Red  maple  is  not  always   safely  distinguished  from   soft  maple.     In   box 
elder  the  pores  are  finer  and  more  numerous  than  in  soft  maple. 
The  various  species  of  elm  may  be  distinguished  as  follows: 

1.  Pores  of  spring  wood  form  a  broad  band  of  several  rows;   easy  split- 
ting, dark  brown  heart    RED   ELM. 

2.  Pores  of  spring  wood  usually  in  a  single  row,  or  nearly  so. 

a.  Pores  of  spring  wood  large,  conspicuously  so WHITE  ELM. 

6.  Pores   of  spring  wood   small  to  minute. 


APPENDIX. 


303 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES — continued. 

a.'  Lines  of  pores  in  summer  wood  fine,  not  as  wide  as  the  inter- 
mediate spaces,  giving  rise  to  very  compact  grain .  .  .  ROCK  ELM. 
&.'  Lines   of   pores   broad,    commonly   as   wide   as   the    intermediate 

spaces WINGED   ELM. 

c.  Pores  in  spring  wood  indistinct,  and  therefore  hardly  a  ring-porous 
wood    .  CEDAR  ELM. 


Fig-.  138.     Wood  of  Elm. 
a   red  elm;  £,  white  elm;  c,  wing-ed  elm. 


su.w; 


Fig-.  139.  Walnut./.  r.,'pith 
rays;  c.  /., concentric  lines; 
?',  vessels  or  pores;  sti.  w., 
summer  wood;  sp.  w, 
spring-  wood. 


Fig-.  140.     Wood  of  Cherry. 


INDEX. 


Abies  grandis,  96. 

Acer  dasycarpum,   172. 

Acer  macrophyllum,  170. 

Acer  rubrum,   174. 

Acer   saccharinum,   172. 

Acer  saccharum,  176. 

Agaricus  mellens,  236. 

Agarics,  234,  236. 

Alburnum,   17. 

Ambrosia   beetles,    242. 

Angiosperms,  9. 

Animal  enemies,  239. 

Arborvitae,  Giant,  104. 

Ash,  182-191,  296. 

Ash,   Black,    182,   298. 

Ash,  Blue,  186. 

Ash,   Hoop,    182. 

Ash,  Oregon,  184. 

Ash,  Red,   188,   298. 

Ash,  White,   25,   190,  298. 

Bamboo,    10,    11. 

Bark,  10,  13,  14. 

Bark  borers,  243. 

Basswood,  14,  178,  301. 

Bast,  13,   15,  16,  20. 

Beech,    134,  JQO. 

Beech,   Blue,   124,   300. 

Beech,  Water,  124. 

Beech,  Water,  162. 

Bees,   carpenter,   246. 

Beetles,    241-246. 

Betula  lenta,  130. 

Betula  lutea,  132. 

Betula  nigra,    128. 

Betula    papyrifera,    126. 

Big  Tree,  98,  208,  209,  220. 

Birch,  Black,   130. 

Canoe,  126 

Birch,    Cherry,    130. 

Birch,  Gray,  132. 

Birch,  Mahogany,   130. 

Birch,   Paper,   126. 

Birch,  Red,  128. 

Birch,   River,    128. 

Birch,  Sweet,  130. 

Birch,    White,    126. 

Birch,    Yellow,    132. 


Bird's  eye  maple,  36. 

Bluing,    234. 

Bole,  211,  218. 

Borers,  243-246. 

Bowing,  47. 

Branches,    37,    218,    226,    286. 

Brittleness,   53. 

Broad-leaved  trees.     See  Trees, 

Broad-leaved. 
Browsing,   240. 
Buckeye,    301. 
Bud,    14,    16,    36. 
Buds,   Adventitious,   36,   37. 
Bullnut,   118. 
Buprestid,  243. 
Burl,   35. 

Butternut,    144,    300. 
Button  Ball,  162. 
Buttonwood,   162. 
Calico   poplar,    246. 
Cambium,  10,  13,  14,  15,  16,  22,  237. 
Canopy,   204,   211,   212. 
Carpenter  worms,  245. 
Carpenter   bees,    246. 
Carpinus   caroliniana,    124. 
Catalpa,  296. 
Castanea  dentata,   136. 
Case-hardening,  48. 
Carya  tomentosa,   118. 
Carya  porcina,   122. 
Carya  alba,  120. 
Cedar,  Canoe,  104. 
Cedar  Incense,  295. 
Cedar,    Oregon,    108. 
Cedar,  Red    110,  223,  295. 
Cedar,   Port   Orford,    108. 
Cedar,   Western    Red,    104,    206,    207. 
Cedar,    White,    106,    295. 
Cedar,  White,   108. 
Cells,   Wood,    15,    19,   20,   21,   24,   26, 

41,   42. 
Cellulose,    15. 
Cells,  Fibrous,   28. 
Cerambycid,  243. 
Chamaecyparis  lawsoniana,  108. 
Chamaecyparis   thyordes,    106. 
Checks,   43,   47,   232. 


304 


INDEX. 


305 


Cherry,    Wild   Black,    164,    300. 

Chestnut,   136,  298. 

Cleaning,  218,  286. 

Cleavability  of  wood,  41,  53. 

Coffee  Tree,   297. 

Color  of  wood,   18. 

Cold,    214,    216. 

Coleoptera,    241. 

Colors  of  woods,  17,  18,  290. 

Columbian    timber    beetle,    245. 

Comb-grain,    54. 

Composition    of   forest,    197-210,    223. 

Compression,   51,   52. 

Conch,   235. 

Cones,  Annual,  19. 

Conifers,  9,  10,  12,  24-26,  29,  30,  48. 
58-111,   205,   220,   237,   251. 

Conservation   of   forests,   262. 

Coppice,  220,  278,  279. 

Cork,   13,   19. 

Cortex,    13,    15. 

Corthylus  columbianus,  245. 

Cotton  wood,    301. 

Cover,   211. 

Crop,  The  Forest,  274. 

Crown,  211,  227. 

Cucumber   Tree,    156,    301. 

Curculionid,    243. 

Cypress,  Bald,   102,   215,  295. 

Cypress,    Lawson,    108. 

Decay,    235. 

Deciduous   trees,    10. 

Dicotoledons,    9,    10. 

Differentiation   of    cells,    16. 

Diffuse-porous.      See   wood,   diffuse- 
porous. 

Distribution  of  species,  218. 

Distribution   of   forests,    197-210. 

Drouth,    213,    231. 

Dry-rot,  234,   238. 

Duff,   224,   251. 

Duramen,    17. 

Elasticity  of   wood,    41,    53. 

Elm,   152-155,   298. 

Elm,  American,   154 

Elm,    Cedar,    303. 

Elm,  Cliff,  152. 

Elm,  Cork,   152. 

Elm,    Hickory,    152. 

Elm,  Red,   302. 

Elm,   Rock,   152,    303. 

Elm,  Slippery,   14. 

Elm,  Water,   154. 

Elm,  White,   152. 

Elm,  White,    154,   302. 

Elm,  Winged,   303. 


Endogens,    10,    17. 

See    Monocotoledons. 
Enemies  of  the  Forest,  229-249. 
Engraver  beetles,    241. 
Entomology,   Bureau   of,   247. 
Epidermis,    13,    15. 
Erosion,   273. 
Evaporation,    42,   47. 
Evergreens,    10. 
Exotics,    227. 
Exogens,    12,    16. 
Fagus   americana,   134. 
Fogus  atropunicea,  134. 
Fagus  ferruginea,    134. 
Fagus   grandifolia,    134. 
Figure,  37. 
Fir,   96,  294. 
Fir,  Douglas,  94. 
Fir,  Grand,  96. 
Fir,   Lowland,   96. 
Fir,   Red,   94,   206,   207. 
Fir,   Silver,  96. 
Fir,    White.    96. 
Fire,   232,   251-258. 
Fire   lanes,    257. 
Fire  losses,  253. 
Fire  notice,   258. 
Fire  trenches,  256. 
Fire   Wardens,    257. 
Fires,    Causes   of,    252. 
Fires,  Control  of.  256-258. 
Fires,   Crown,   255. 
Fires,    Description    of,    254-256. 
Fires,  Fear  of,  261. 
Fires,  Opportunities  for,   251. 
Fires,    Statistics   of,    253. 
Fires,    Surface,    252. 
Floor,   Forest,   213,   224. 
Forest,    Abundance    of,    260. 
Forest,   Appalachian,   204. 
Forest,    Atlantic.    197. 
Forest,    Broadleaf,    202. 
Forest,    Eastern,    197-204. 
Forest,   Enemies   of,    229-249. 
Forest,   Exhaustion  of,   241-270. 
Forest,   Esthetic  use  of,   277. 
Forest,  Fear  of.  260. 
Forest,    Hardwood,    197. 
Forest,   High,   281. 
Forest,  Hostility  toward,]  260. 
Forest,  Mixed,  204,  213,  214. 
Forest,   Northern,    197,   216. 
Forest,   Pacific,    197,   204-208. 
Forest,   Productive,    274-277. 
Forest,    Protective,    271-274. 
Forest,  Puget  Sound,  206. 
Forest,  Regular  Seed,  281. 


306 


INDEX. 


Forest,  Rocky  Mountain,  197,  204, 
205. 

Forest,    Seed,   297-282. 

Forest,  Selection,  280-281. 

Forest,    Southern,    197. 

Forest,    Subarctic,    209. 

Forest,    Two-storied    Seed,    282. 

Forest,  Use  of,  271-287. 

Forest,   Utilization  of,   271-277. 

Forest,   Virgin,   280. 

Forest,  Western,  197. 

Forestry,  271-287. 

Forests,  Composition  of  North  Amer- 
ican, 197. 

Forests,  National,  228. 

Forests   and   agriculture,    258,  277. 

Forest  conditions,  211-228,  278. 

Forest    conservation,    262. 

Forest  cover,    204,   211,   212,   224. 

Forest  crop,   274,   276. 

Forest    devastation,    261. 

Forest  fires,  251-258,  261. 

Fores't   floor,   213,   224. 

Forest   improvement,   284-286. 

Forest  map,   198. 

Forest  organism,  The,  Chapter  V.,  pp. 
211-228. 

Forest  ownership,   262. 

Forest    planting,    282-284. 

Forest   preservation,    277-284. 

Forest    products,    276. 

Forest  Service,  U.   S.,   £62,   264,   275. 

Fraxinus  americana,  190. 

Fraxinus  nigra,  182. 

Fraxinus  oregona,   184. 

Fraxinus  pennsylvanica,  188. 

Fraxinus   quadrangulata,    186. 

Frost,  232. 

Frost-check,  232. 

Fungi,    26,    233-239. 

Ginko,    12. 

Gluing,  54. 

Goats,   240. 

Grain  of  wood,  19,  30,   31,  32-37,  53. 

Grain,  Bird's  eye. 

Grain,  coarse,  32. 

Grain,  cross,   33,   53. 

Grain,   curly,   35. 

Grain,   fine,   32. 

Grain,    spiral,    33. 

Grain,  straight,  33,  53. 

Grain,  twisted,  33. 

Grain,   wavy,   34. 

Grazing,  239. 

Group   system,    279. 

Grubs,   243,   244. 

Gum,  Black,   180. 


Gum,  Sour,   180,  301. 

Gum,   Sweet,   160,   301. 

Gymnosperms,   9. 

Hackberry,  297. 

Hackmatack,   76. 

Hardness  of  wood,  41,  54. 

Hardwoods,   12. 

Heart- wood,    13,    17,    18,    19,    290. 

Hemlock,   90,   295. 

Hemlock,   Black,    92. 

Hemlock,   Western,   92,    206. 

Hicoria  alba,  118. 

Hicoria   glabra,    122. 

Hicoria  ovata,   120. 

Hickory,   118-123,   298. 

Hickory,   Big-bud.   118. 

Hickory,  Black,   118. 

Hickory,    Shagbark,    120. 

Hickory,    Shellbark,    120. 

Hickory,    White-heart,    118. 

Holly,  301. 

High  Forest,  281. 

Honeycombing,  48. 

Hornbeam,   124. 

Horn-tails,  246. 

Hygroscopicity  of  wood,   41. 

Hymenomycetes,   234. 

Ice,    232. 

Ichneumon   fly,    247. 

Identification    of    woods,    289-303. 

Improvement   of   forests,    284-286. 

Inflammability   of   bark,    14,    251. 

Insects,    240-248. 

Insects,   parasitic,   247. 

Insects,    predaoeous,    247. 

Intolerance,  216,  219,  221. 

Iron- wood,   124. 

Juglans   cinerea,    114. 

Juglans  nigra,    116. 

Juniperus  virginiana,   llO. 

Key    for    the    distinction    of    woods, 

292-303. 
•King-nut,  118. 
Knot,  35,  37,  38. 
Larch,    76. 
Larch,   Western,    78. 
Larix   americana,    76. 
Larix   laricina,   76. 
Larix  occidentalis,   78. 
Lenticels,   14. 
Leaves,    14,    216. 
Lepidoptera,  241. 
Light,   216-218. 
Lightning,   231,   251. 
Li<rnin,  16. 
Linden,  178. 
Liquidambar  styraciflua,    160. 


INDEX. 


307 


Liriodendron  tulipifera,  158. 

Localized   Selection   system,   281. 

Locust,    166. 

Locust,  Black,   166,  296. 

Locust,  Honey,  166,  297. 

Locust,  Yellow,   166. 

Long-bodied  trunk,  225. 

Lumber    consumption,    264. 

Lumber,   9,    10. 

Lumber  prices,  267,  268. 

Lumber    production,    265-267. 

Lumber,  substitutes  for,  264. 

Lumbering,  conservative,   274,   276. 

Lumbering,  destructive,  251,  258-263. 

Lumberman,   260. 

Magnolia,   acuminata,    156. 

Magnolia,   Mountain,    156. 

Mahogany,  168. 

Maple,   170-177,   301. 

Maple,  Hard,   25,    176. 

Maple,  Large  Leaved,  170. 

Maple,    Oregon,    170,    207. 

Maple,   Red,    174,   302. 

Maple,  Rock,   25,    176. 

Maple,  Silver,   172,  302. 

Maple,   Soft,   172. 

Maple,  Sugar,  17fi 

Maple,    White,    170. 

Maple.    White,    172. 

Medullary   rays.      See  Rays. 

Medullary    Sheath.      See    Sheath. 

Merulius   lachrymans,   234,   238. 

Meteorological  enemies,  229-233. 

Mice,  237. 

Microscope,    14,   24-31,  290. 

Mine,   Forest  treated   as,   261,   274. 

Mocker  nut,   118. 

Moisture,    213. 

Moisture  in  wood,   41,   52. 

Monocotoledons,  9,   10,   17. 

See   also    Endogens. 
Mountain,   216. 
Mulberry,   Red,    297. 
Mushroom.  236. 
Mutual  aid,   224. 
bailing,   53. 
Needle-leaf    trees,    12. 
Non-porous.      See    Wood,   non-porous. 
North  Woods,  197,  218. 
Nurse.  218,  219. 
Nyssa  sylvatica,  180. 
Oak,    138-151,   298. 
Oak,  Basket,   142. 
Oak,   Black,    140. 
Oak,  Bur,   144. 
Oak,   Cow,    142. 
Oak,   Live,   201. 


Oak,  Mossy-cup,   144. 
Oak,    Over-cup,    144. 
Oak,  Post,   148. 
Oak,  Red,   138. 
Oak,   Stave,    150. 
Oak,  White,   150. 
Oak,  White    (Western),  146 
Oak,   Yellow   bark,    140. 
Odors  of  wood,  18. 
Osage    Orange,    296. 
Organism,   Forest,   211. 
Padus  serotina,  164. 
Palm,   9,    17. 
Paper    pulp,    263. 
Parasites,   233. 
Parenchyma,   23,    28. 
Pecky   cypress,    234. 
Peggy  cypress,  234. 
Pepperidge,    180. 
Persimmon,   298. 
Phanerogamia,   9. 
Phloem,   13. 
Picea  alba,  80. 
Picea  canadensis,  80. 
Picea   engelmanni,   86. 
Picea   mariana,    84. 
Picea   nigra,   84. 
Picea  rubens,   82. 
Picea  sitchensis,   88. 
Pigeon  Horn-tail,   247. 
Pignut,  122. 
Pines,    58-75.    295. 
Pine,  Bull,  66,  205,  282. 
Pine,   Cuban,    74. 
Pine,   Georgia,   68. 
Pine,  Loblolly,  72. 
Pine,    Long-leaf,    68,    200. 
Pine,  Norway,  64. 
Pine,  Old  Field,  72. 
Pine,  Oregon,  94. 
Pine,    Red,    64. 
Pine,    Short-leaf,    70. 
Pine,  Slash,  74. 
Pine,  Sugar,  62. 
Pine,  Western  White,   60. 
Pine,  Western  Yellow,  66. 
Pine,    Weymouth,    58. 
Pine,  White,   24,   58,    199. 
Pine,  Yellow,   70. 
Pine  sawyers,  244. 
Pinus  caribaea,  74. 
Pinus   echinata,    70. 
Pinus   heterophylla,   74. 
Pinus  lambertiana,   62. 
Pinus  monticola,   60. 
Pinus  palustris,    68. 
Pinus    ponderosa,    66. 


INDEX. 


Pinus   resinosa,   64. 

Pinus  strobus,  58. 

Pinus  taeda,  72. 

Pith,  10,  13,  15,  16,  23,  32,  39. 

Pith  ray.     See  Ray,  medullary. 

Pits,  26,  292. 

Planting,  282-284. 

Platanus    occidentalis,    162. 

Poles,    225. 

Polypores,  234 

Polyporus   annosus,  237. 

Polyporus  sulphureus,   236. 

Poplar,    yellow,    158,    221,    245,    246, 

301. 

Pores,    23,   28,    29,   291. 
Powder-post   beetles,    244. 
Preservation    of    forests,    277-284. 
Prices  of  lumber,   267,   268. 
Primary  growth,  17,  22. 
Procambium   strands,    16. 
Protection   against   fungi,    239. 
Protection   against    insects,    247. 
Properties  of  wood,  Chap    II.,  p.  41. 
Protoplasm,,  14,  16,  23,  41 
Pruning    of   branches,    286. 
Prunus   serotina,    164. 
Pseudotsuga  mucronata,  94. 
Pseudotsuga  taxifolia,  94. 
Quartering  a  log,  45. 
Quartered    oak,    22. 
Quercus   alba,    150. 
Quercus   garryana,    146. 
Quercus  macrocarpa,  144. 
Quercus  michauxii,    142. 
Quercus  minor,   148. 
Quercus  obtusiloba,   148. 
Quercus  rubra,   138. 
Quercus  stellata,   148. 
Quercus  tinctoria,  140. 
Quercus  velutina,   140. 
Rainfall,  effect  on  forest,   205,  213. 
Rays,  medullary,    15,   16,   17,   21,  22, 

*  23,  26,  30,  31,  37,  44,  53,  291. 
Red  rot,  234. 

Redwood,    100,   207,   208,   222,   295. 
Regularity  of  cells,   24. 
Reproduction,  220. 
Reserve  sprout  method,   279. 
Resin  ducts,  26,  291. 
Rhizomorphs,   236. 
Rind,   13. 

Ring-porous.     See  Wood,  ring-porous. 
Rings,  Annual,  9,   18,   19,  21,  23,  44, 

226,  290. 

Rings,  False,  19,  231. 
Robinia  pseudacacia,    166. 
Rodents,  239. 


Roots,   211,   224. 

Rotation  period,  279. 

Rotting,  234. 

Salix  nigra,  112. 

Sand  dunes,   230,   231. 

Saplings,  225,  226. 

Saprophytes,    233. 

Sap-wood,    13,    17,    18,   41,  42,   290. 

Sassafras,   296. 

Sawyers,    Pine,    244. 

Secondary  growth,    17. 

Section,    cross,    21,    22,    29. 

See   also   Section,   transverse. 

Section,  radial,   19,  22,  26,   30,  31. 

Section,  tangential,  19,  22,  26,  30,  31. 

Section,  transverse,   19,  24,  29,   30. 

Seasoning,   42. 

Sections,  transverse,  radial  and  tan- 
gential,  12. 

Seed   forests,    279-282. 

Seeding  from  the  side,  279. 

Seedlings,  225,   226. 

Seeds,   220-223,   226. 

Sequoia,    98. 

Sequoia,    100. 

Sequoia,    Giant,    98. 

Sequoia  gigantea,  98. 

Sequoia   sempervirens,    100. 

Sequoia  loashingtoniana,  98. 

Settler,  258. 

Shake,  47,  232,  233. 

Shearing  strength,  52. 

Sheep,    240. 

Shelf  fungus,  234,  236. 

Short-bodied  trunk,   225,  226. 

Shrinkage   of    wood,   41,    42-47. 

Silver   flakes,  22.     See   Rays,   Medul- 
lary. 

Silvical   characteristics,   211. 

Silvicultural    systems,    278-284. 

Slash,    229,    251,    257. 

Slash-grain,   54. 

Snow,   232. 

Slash-sawing,  45,  47. 

Softwoods,    12. 

Soil,  211,  213. 

Specific  gravity.     See  Weight. 

Splint- wood,    17. 

Splitting.     See  Cleavability. 

Spores,  234. 

Spring-wood,    20,   21,    24,    30,    32,   44, 
53,    54,   291. 

Sprouts,   220,   222. 

Spruce,  80-89,  295. 

Spruce,  Black,   84. 

Spruce,   Douglas,   94,   296. 

Spruce,  Engelmann's,  86. 


INDEX. 


309 


Spruce,  Red,  82,  213. 

Spruce,    Sitka,  88. 

Spruce,  Tideland,  88. 

Spruce,   Western  White,   86. 

Spruce,    White,    80. 

Stand,  mixed,   213,   223. 

Stand,    pure,    213,    223. 

Standards,   225,   226. 

Steamboats,    246. 

Stem,  diagram  of  cross  section,   Fig. 

4,  p.   13,  fig.   5,  p.   15,  211. 
Strength   of   wood,   41,    51-53 
Strip  system,   279. 
Structure  of  wood,  9-40,  29,  30.  32. 
Struggle  for  existence,  224,  226,  227. 
Summer- wood,  20,  21,  24,  30,  32,  44, 

53,  54,  291. 

Swietenia  mahagoni,    168. 
Sycamore,   22,   162,   300. 
Tamarack,    76,    296. 
Tamarack,    Western,    78. 
Taxes   on   forests,   261. 
Taxodium    distichum,    102. 
Tear   fungus,    234,    238. 
Temperature,    214. 
Tension,  51,  52. 
Texture  of  wood,  32. 
Thuja  gigantca,  104. 
Thuja  plicata,  104. 
Tilia  americana,  178. 
Timber   beetles,    242,    245. 
Timber    supply   of   U.    S.,    264-269. 
Timber   trees,    10. 
Timber   worms,   244. 
Tissue,  16. 
Toadstools,  234. 
Tolerance,   216,   219. 
Toughness  of  wood,   41,   54. 
Tracheae,  23,   28. 
Tracheid,    28,    30,    290,    292. 
Trametes  pini,   235. 
Trametes   radiciperda,    237. 
Tree,   parts   of,   211. 
Treeless  area,   197,   203. 
Trees,    Broad-leaved,    9,    10,    28,    29. 
Trees,  deciduous,   10. 
Trunk,   13,  211. 

Long-bodied,    225. 

Short-bodied,   225. 
Tsuga   canadensis,   90. 
Tsuga  heterophylla,  92. 
Tulip   Tree,    158. 

See  Poplar  Yellow 


Tupelo,    180. 

Turpentine,    263. 

Two-storied  Seed  Forest,  282. 

Ulmus  americana,  154. 

Ulmus  racemosa,    1§2. 

Ulmus  thomasi,   152. 

Utilization   of   forests,    271-277. 

Veneer,   10,   35. 

Vessels,  23,  28,  29. 

Vegetable   enemies,    233-239. 

Veterans,  225. 

Walnut,    Black,    116,    300. 

Walnut,   White,    114. 

Warping,  45-47. 

Waste,  Avoidance  of,  274. 

Waste   in  lumbering,   263. 

Water,  41,  42,  226,  231. 

Weeds,    Forest,    225. 

Weight  of  wood,  41,  49-51. 

Whitewood,    158. 

Wilderness,    Conquest    of,    258. 

Willow,   Black,    112. 

Wind,  229,  252,   253. 

Windfalls,  229. 

Wood,  Diffuse-porous,  23,  30,  300-303. 

Wood,  Non-porous,  24-26,  58-111,  294- 

296. 

Wood,    Primary,    17. 
Wood,  Properties  of,  Chap.  II.,  41-56. 
Wood,  Ring-porous,  23,  29,  296-299. 
Wood,   Spring,  20,  21,  24,  30,  32,  44, 

53,  54,  291. 

Wood,   Structure  of,   9-40. 
Wood,  secondary,  17. 
Wood,    summer,    20,    21,    24,    30.    32, 

44,    53,   54,   291. 
Wood    borers,    243. 
Wood  cells.     See  Cells. 
Wood.     See  Sap-wood,  Heart  wood. 
Wood  dyes,   18. 
Wood  fiber,  28. 
Woods,  Color  of,  17,  18,  290. 
Woods,    The     distinguishing  of,    289- 

303. 

Working,  47. 
Worm-holes,    243. 
Worms,    carpenter,   245. 
Worms,  Timber,   244. 
Wound  parasites,   234. 
Yew,  295. 
Yield,  275. 
Yucca,  10. 


Books    on    the    Manual    Arts 


HANDWORK  IN  WOOD.     By  William  Noyes. 

A  handbook  for  teachers  and  a  textbook  for  normal  school  and  col- 
lege students.  A  comprehensive  and  scholarly  treatise,  covering  log- 
ging, sawmilling,  seasoning  and  measuring,  hand  tools,  wood  fastenings, 
equipment  and  care  of  the  shop,  the1  common  joints,  types  of  wood 
structures,  principles  of  joinery,  and  wood  finishing.  304  illustrations 
— excellent  pen  drawings  and  many  photographs.  Price,  $2.00. 

WOOD  AND  FOREST.     By  William  Noyes. 

A  companion  volume  to  "Handwork  in  Wood,"  by  the  same  author. 
Especially  adapted  as  a  reference  book  for  teachers  of  woodworking. 
Not  too  difficult  for  iuse  as  a  textbook  for  normal  school  and  college 
students.  Treats  of  wood,  distribution  of  American  forests,  life  of  the 
forest,  enemies  of  the  forest,  destruction,  conservation  and  uses  of  the 
forest,  with  a  key  to  the  common  woods  by  Filibert  Roth.  Describes 
67  principal  species  of  wood  with  maps  of  the  habitat,  leaf  drawings, 
life  size  photographs  and  microphotographs  of  sections.  Contains  a 
general  bibliography  of  books  and  articles  on  wood  and  forest.  Pro- 
fusely illustrated  with  photographs  from  the  United  States  forest  serv- 
ice and  with  pen  and  ink  drawings  by  Anna  Gausmann  Noyes  and 
photographs  by  the  author.  309  pages.  Price,  $3.00. 

BEGINNING  WOODWORK,  At  Home  and  in  School. 
By  Clinton  S.  VanDeuscn. 

A  full  and  clear  description  in  detail  of  the  fundamental  processes 
of  elementary  benchwork  in  wood.  This  description  is  given  thru 
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PROBLEMS  IN  FURNITURE  MAKING.     By  Fred  D.  Crawshaw. 

This  book,  revised  and  enlarged,  consists  of  43  plates  of  working 
drawings  suitable  for  use  .in  grammar  and  high  schools,  and  36  pages 
of  text,  including  chapters  on  design,  construction,  and  finishes,  and 
notes  on  the  problems.  Price,  $1.00. 

PROBLEMS  IN  WOODWORKING.     By  M.  W.  Murray. 

A  convenient  collection  of  good  problems  consisting  of  forty  plates 
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PROBLEMS  IN  WOOD-TURNING.     By  Fred  D.  Crawshaw. 

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WOOD  PATTERN-MAKING.     By  Horace  T.  Purfield. 

This  book  was  written  expressly  for  use  as  a  textbook  for  high 
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CORRELATED  COURSES  IN  WOODWORK  AND  MECHANICAL 
DRAWING.     By  Ira  S.  Cnlth. 

This  book  is  designed  to  meet  the  every-day  need  of  the  teacher 
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ESSENTIALS  OF  WOODWORKING.     By  Ira  S.  Griffith. 

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PROJECTS  FOR  BEGINNING  WOODWORK  AND  MECHANICAL 
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ADVANCED  PROJECTS  IN  WOODWORK.     By  Ira  S.  Griffith. 

This,  book  is  similar  to  "Projects  for  Beginning  Woodwork  and 
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PROBLEMS  IN  MECHANICAL  DRAWING.    By  Charles  A.  Bennett. 
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DESCRIPTIVE  GEOMETRY.    By  H.  W.  Miller. 

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bound  in  leather,  pocket  book  size.  Price,  $1.50. 

SIMPLIFIED  MECHANICAL  PERSPECTIVE.     By  Frank  Forrest 
Frederick. 

A  book  of  simple  problems  covering-  the  essentials  of  mechanical 
perspective.  It  is  planned  for  pupils  of  high  school  age  who  have  al- 
ready received  some  elementary  training  in  mechanical  drawing.  It 
is  simple,  direct  and  practical.  Price,  75  cents. 

CLASSROOM  PRACTICE  IN  DESIGN.     By  James  Parton  Haney. 

A  concise  up-to-date,  richly  illustrated  brochure  on  the  teaching  <of 
applied  design.  Price,  50  cents. 

THE  WASH  METHOD  OF  HANDLING  WATER  COLOUR. 

By  Frank  Forrest  Frederick. 

A  brief,  clear,  comprehensive  text,  printed  in  sepia  and  illustrated 
with  wash  drawings  and  a  water-color  piainting  by  the  author.  Price, 
50  cents. 

HANDICRAFT  FOR  GIRLS.     By  Idabelle  McGlauflm. 

A  handbook  for  teachers,  detailing  a  five-years'  course  in  sewing 
for  girls  in  the  public  schools.  Chapters  on  stitches,  fibers  and  fabrics, 
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schools.  Price,  $1.00. 

MANUAL  ARTS  FOR  VOCATIONAL  ENDS.    By  Fred  D.  Crawshaw. 

A  strong  and  convincing  plea  for  the  development  of  the  present 
school  machinery  to  serve  the  ends  of  vocational  education.  The  author 
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cation, and  points  out  a  way  to  a  richer  and  brighter  future  for  both. 
Price,  85  cents. 

HANDWORK  INSTRUCTION  FOR  BOYS.     By  Dr.  Alwm  Pabst. 
Translated  by  Bertha  Reed  Coffman. 

A  philosophical  and  historical  review  of  manual  training  for  boys 
and  a  discussion  of  the  systems,  in  vogue  in  the  several  European  coun- 
tries and  in  America,  by  the  director  of  the  normal  school  for  teachers 
of  manual  training  at  Leipsic.  With  plates  showing  typical  manual 
training  workshops.  Price,  $1.00. 

WOODWORK  FOR  SCHOOLS  ON  SCIENTIFIC  LINES. 
By  James  Thomas  Baily  and  S.  Pollitt. 

The  American  edition  of  an  English  book  containing  120  practical 
problems,  many  of  which  have  been  designed  to  correlate  mathematics 
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MANUAL  TRAINING  TOYS.     FOR  THE  BOYS'  WORKSHOP. 
By  Hams  W.  Moore. 

A  popular  boys'  book  that  is  truly  educational.  It  is  a  collection 
of  forty-two  projects  overflowing  wath  "boy"  interest  and  new  in  the 
manual  training  shop.  Full-page  working  drawings  show  each  project 
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formation on  tools  and  tool  processes.  Price,  $1.00. 

THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND  FLYING  OF  KITES. 
By  Charles  M.  Miller. 

This  contains  seven  full-page  plates  of  drawings  of  kites  and  fifteen 
figures — over  forty  kites  shown.  Details  of  construction  given;  a  kite 
tournament  is  described.  Full  of  interesting  suggestions.  Price,  20 
cents. 

COPING  SAW  WORK.     By  Ben  W.  Johnson. 

Contains  working  drawings  and  suggestions  for  teaching  a  course 
of  work  in  thin  wood  that  is  full  of  fun  for  the  children,  and  afford^ 
ample  means  for  training  in  form  study,  construction,  (invention  and 
careful  work.  Has  been  called  "applied  mechanics  for  the  fourth 
grade."  Price,  20  cents. 

SELECTED  SHOP  PROBLEMS.     By  George  A.  Seaton. 

A  collection  of  sixteen  problems  in  woodworking  made  to  meet  the 
needs  of  busy  teachers  of  manual  training.  Each  problem  has  been 
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CLAY  WORK.     By  Katherme  Morns  Lester. 

This  book  was  written  by  a  grade  teacher  and  art  worker  to  help 
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MANUAL  TRAINING  MAGAZINE.     Charles  A.  Bennett,  Editor. 
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Assisted  by  a  staff  of  associate  and  department  editors.  An  illus- 
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VOCATIONAL  EDUCATION.     Charles  A.  Bennett,  Editor. 
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Assisted)  by  Arthur  D.  Dean,  Frank  M.  Leavitt  and  William  E. 
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